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foundations of neuroscience > Unit 1 > Flashcards

Unit 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Information comes into the neuron from projections called

A

Axons

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2
Q

The junctions through which information passes from one neuron to another are called

A

Synapses

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3
Q

Presynaptic neurons release molecules called ________ to signal onto postsynaptic neurons

A

neurotransmitters

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4
Q

Glia

A

Non-neuronal cells

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5
Q

CNS contains

A

Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependyma

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6
Q

PNS contains

A

Satellite and Schwann cells

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7
Q

CNS Is composed of

A

brain and spinal cord

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8
Q

PNS is composed of

A

nerves

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9
Q

Neuron

A

specialized cells that conduct and process information, enabling thought, perception, and control of movement

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10
Q

Action Potential

A

signals are transmitted by a change of membrane voltage within a neuron

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11
Q

Neurotransmitters are

A

chemicals

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12
Q

Synaptic plasticity

A

The strength of synaptic connections can be modified by neuronal activity

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13
Q

Neuronal membrane

A

Barrier

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14
Q

Soma

A

cell body

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15
Q

Axon

A

sends information

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16
Q

Dendrite

A

receives information; “antennae” of neurons

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17
Q

Synapse

A

communication sites between neurons

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18
Q

Neuronal Membrane thickness

A

5 nanometers (nm)

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19
Q

Neuronal Membrane is composed of

A

phospholipid bilayer that is hydrophilic on outside, and hydrophobic on inside

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20
Q

Neuronal Soma size

A

5-50 micrometers μm

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21
Q

Cytosol

A

watery fluid inside the cell

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22
Q

Organelles are

A

membrane-enclosed structures within soma

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23
Q

What are the organelles inside the soma

A

Ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria

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24
Q

Ribosomes

A

major site for protein synthesis

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25
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum & Golgi Apparatus

A

sits for sorting proteins for delivery to different cell regions

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26
Q

Mitochondria

A

site for cellular respiration/generating ATP

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27
Q

Cytoplasm

A

contents within a cell membrane, excluding the nucleus

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28
Q

Nucleus

A

contains DNA, is the site for gene expression, transcription and RNA processing

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29
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

supports the cell shape; internal scaffolding

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30
Q

Cytoskeleton consists of

A

Microtubules, neurofilaments, microfilaments

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31
Q

Microtubules

A

20 nm, largest diameter, tubulin based

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32
Q

Neurofilaments

A

10nm, intermediate diameter

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33
Q

Microfilaments

A

5 nm, smallest diameter, actin based

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34
Q

Microtubules are located in

A

Dendrites & axons

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35
Q

Neurofilaments are located in

A

Axon & soma

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36
Q

Microfilaments are located in

A

the lining of the entire cell

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37
Q

Axon length

A

Up to 1 meter

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38
Q

Axon hillock

A

Beginning

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39
Q

Axon terminal

A

end

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40
Q

Differences between cytoplasm of axon terminal and axon

A
  • no microtubules in terminal
  • presence of synaptic vesicles in terminal
  • abundance of membrane proteins
  • large number of mitochondria
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41
Q

Signal transformation

A

electrical –> chemical –> electrical

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42
Q

Dendritic spines

A

postsynaptic sites, receiving signals from axon terminals

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43
Q

Projection neurons

A
  • Principal neurons
  • send an axon out of where the somata are located
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44
Q

Intrinsic neurons

A
  • Interneurons
  • make synapses within the structure where their soma is located
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45
Q

Cortex

A

80% are projection neurons with majority being pyramidal neurons

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46
Q

Cerebellum

A

Purkinje cells (projection); granule cells (interneuron)

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47
Q

Retina

A

Retinal ganglion cells (projection); bipolar cells (interneuron)

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48
Q

Cell type

A

defines a group of neurons that carry out a distinct task

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49
Q

Intracellular and extracellular fluids contain

A

water and ions

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50
Q

Membrane potential

A

the voltage across the cell membrane at any moment

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51
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

the membrane potential when the neuron is not “excited” or “fired”

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52
Q

In neurons, the value of the resting membrane potential is between

A

-40 mV and -90 mV

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53
Q

Steps of electrophysiology

A
  1. insert a microelectrode into the cell
  2. connect microelectrode to voltmeter which measures the potential cell difference between inside and outside the cell
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54
Q

3 factors for resting membrane potential

A
  1. intracellular potassium concentration is HIGH
  2. extracellular potassium concentration is LOW
  3. cell membrane is selectively permeable to potassium ions
    *sodium is the opposite
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55
Q

The Nernst equation calculates

A

the equilibrium potential for an ion (the electrical potential that exactly balances a concentration gradient for that ion)

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56
Q

Neuronal membranes are permeable to more than one type of ion true or false

A

True

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57
Q

Goldman equation considers

A

the membrane permeability of various ions

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58
Q

Goldman equation describes a _________ condition that is a __________ among several equilibrium potentials.

A

steady-state ; “compromise”

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59
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

a change in membrane potential that makes the inside of the cell more negative

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60
Q

Depolarization

A

a change that makes the inside of the cell less negative

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61
Q

Discovered action potential

A

Sir John Eccles, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley

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62
Q

Voltage-gated ion channel steps

A
  1. Transmembrane
  2. Ion Selectivity
  3. Open states depend on depolarization
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63
Q

Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel

A
  • open fast
  • open for a short period
  • inactivate during prolonged depolarization (cannot be opened again immediately by depolarization)
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64
Q

Voltage-Gated Potassium Channel

A
  • open slow
  • stay open for longer
  • do NOT inactivate
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65
Q

Tetrodoxin (TTX)

A
  • puffer fish
  • Clogs Na+ permeable pores
  • Blocks all sodium-dependent action potentials
  • lethal dose is 0.33 mg/kg
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66
Q

Batrachotoxin

A
  • poison dart frogs
  • blocks inactivation so channels remain open
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67
Q

Aconitine

A
  • Flower buttercups
  • Blocks inactivation so channels remain open
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68
Q

Threshold

A

The level of depolarization that must be reached in order to trigger an action potential

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69
Q

Action potential generation is the

A

process by which a neuron rapidly depolarizes from a negative resting potential to a more positive potential

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70
Q

Action potential generation is achieved by

A

the movement of ions through voltage-gated ion channels

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71
Q
  1. Resting state
A
  • the initial membrane potential is -70mv
  • both voltage-gated NA and K channels are closed
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72
Q

Steps of generating action potential

A
  1. Resting State
  2. Depolarization
  3. Rising phase
  4. Falling phase
  5. Undershoot
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73
Q
  1. Depolarization
A
  • membrane becomes depolarized
  • NA+ channels open and Na+ enters the cell
  • if threshold is reached, action potential is triggered
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74
Q

Repolarization

A

the efflux of K+ ions across the membrane

75
Q
  1. Rising Phase
A
  • Na+ ions flood into the cell and membrane moves toward equilibrium potential (60mV)
  • Does not get that high because Na+ channels close fast
76
Q
  1. Falling Phase
A
  • although Na+ channels are inactivated, K+ channels open
  • K+ ions flood out of the cell and repolarize the membrane
77
Q
  1. Undershoot
A
  • K+ channels are open long enough for membrane potential to get near equilibrium potential
78
Q

Myelin

A

Layers of myelin sheath facilitate action potential propagation

79
Q

Voltage-gated ion channels are concentrated at the

A

Node of Ranvier

80
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A

Jump

81
Q

Presynaptic cell

A
  • Mitochondria provide energy
  • Synaptic vesicles contain neurotransmitters
82
Q

Postsynaptic cell

A
  • neurotransmitter receptors located on the membrane
83
Q

Synaptic Cleft

A

A gap between synapses that is 20nm wide

84
Q

Synapses between neurons

A
  • axospinous
  • axodendritic
  • axosomatic
  • axoaxonic
85
Q

Synapses between neuron and muscle

A

neuromuscular junction

86
Q

Axospinous

A

axon to dendritic spine

87
Q

Axodendritic

A

Axon to dendrite

88
Q

Axosomatic

A

Axon to cell body

89
Q

Axoaxonic

A

axon to axon

90
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

axon to muscle

91
Q

Step of neurotransmitter release via exocytosis

A
  • vesicle containing neurotransmitter
  • plasma membrane depolarizes at axon terminal. voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open and it Ca2+ diffuses into cell
  • Ca2+ influx makes syn. vesicles fuse w presyn. membrane and the neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft by exocytosis
  • synaptic vesicle recycled by endocytosis
92
Q

Gap-Junction channels

A

allow information to be transferred directly (because anything is allowed to flow through, not just certain ions)

93
Q

Electrical Synapses

A
  • cells are electrically coupled by gap junction
  • bidirectional transmission
  • fast transmission (membrane potentials change instantaneously)
94
Q

Psychiatric disorder targeted neurotransmitters

A

Dopamine & Serotonin

95
Q

Most common excitatory neurotransmitter

A

Glutamate

96
Q

Adrenaline

A

Fight or flight neurotransmitter

97
Q

Noradrenaline

A

Concentration neurotransmitter

98
Q

Glutamate

A

Memory neurotransmitter

99
Q

Dopamine

A

Pleasure neurotransmitter

100
Q

Serotonin

A

Mood neurotransmitter

101
Q

Most common inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

GABA

102
Q

GABA

A

Calming neurotransmitter

103
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Learning neurotransmitter

104
Q

Endorphins

A

Euphoria neurotransmitter

105
Q

2 classes of neurotransmitters

A
  • small molecule
  • peptide neurotransmitters AKA neuropeptides
106
Q

Small molecule neurotransmitters

A
  • Amino Acids: Glutamate, aspartate, GABA, glycine
  • Acetylcholine
  • Biogenic Amines: Dopamine, serotonin (5-HT), norepinephrine, epinephrine, histamine
107
Q

Peptide neurotransmitters (neuropeptides)

A
  • Bran-gut peptides: Substance P
  • Opioid peptides
  • Pituitary peptides
  • hypothalamic-releasing peptides
  • others
108
Q

2 classes of neurotransmitter receptors

A

Ionotropic & metabotropic

109
Q

Ionotropic receptors

A

Ligand-gated ion channels

110
Q

Metabotropic receptors

A

activate second-messenger systems

111
Q

Ionotropic receptor excitatory effects

A

Na+ diffuses into postsynaptic cell and depolarizes the membrane towards the action potential threshold

112
Q

Ionotropic receptor inhibitory effects

A
  • Cl- moves into postsynaptic cell and leads to hyperpolarization
  • K+ moves out of postsynaptic cell and leads to hyperpolarization
113
Q

What determines the action of GABA to be inhibitory?

A

Concentration gradient

114
Q

Can GABA be excitatory?

A

Yes, if the Cl- concentration is higher inside the cell than outside. When channels open, Cl- ions flow out
*temporarily excitatory in newborns

115
Q

G-Protein Coupled Receptor steps

A
  1. Binding of the neurotransmitter to the receptor protein
  2. Activation of G-protein
  3. G-protein splits into two parts: Gα & Gβγ
  4. Activation of effector systems, including ion channels and enzymes
116
Q

Synaptic Integration

A
  • a process by which multiple synaptic potentials combine with one postsynaptic cell
  • Most CNS neurons receive thousands of synaptic inputs.
117
Q

Plasticity

A

Capacity of the nervous system to change

118
Q

Temporal Features of plasticity

A

Short Term: from milliseconds to seconds to minutes

Long Term: from minutes to hours to days to life-time

119
Q

Spatial Features of plasticity

A
  1. At synapses (synaptic plasticity)
  2. Within neurons
  3. Within glia
120
Q

Plasticity affects the _____________ of neural circuits and systems

A

structure and function

121
Q

Plasticity is the foundation of

A
  1. Learning and memory
  2. Recovery from injury or disability
  3. Pathology
122
Q

Specificity

A

Only active synapses are strengthened

123
Q

Associativity

A

Co-active synapses are strengthened

124
Q

AMPA and NMDA receptors are

A

Glutamate-gated cation channels (Na+, K+)

125
Q

2 unique properties of NMDA receptors

A

1.voltage-gated owing to action of Mg2+
2. Conducts Ca2+

126
Q

Glutamate receptors mediate excitatory synaptic transmission with

A

AMPA & NMDA receptors

127
Q

Increase in intracellular Ca2+ triggers

A
  • activation of kinases
  • phosphorylation of AMPA receptors to increase the Na+ conductance
  • insertion of additional AMPA receptors
128
Q

What happens if there is no AMPA, only NMDA?

A

No change. The cell won’t become depolarized and trigger the voltage gates, so the Mg2+ wont be removed

129
Q

Silent Synapse

A

a synapse where an excitatory postsynaptic response is absent at the resting membrane potential becomes apparent on depolarization

130
Q

Maturation of silent synapses

A
  1. Developmentally regulated
  2. LTP
131
Q

Molecular Mechanisms of LTD

A
  • Glutamate receptors mediate excitatory synaptic transmission (AMPA receptors and NMDA receptors)
  • Moderate intracellular Ca2+ increase triggers second messenger systems
    1- activation of phosphatases
    1. dephosphorylation of proteins
    2. internalization of AMPA receptors
132
Q

Hebbian Rule (Hebb’s Postulate)

A

When axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B and repeatedly or persistently take part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A’s efficiency, as one of cells firing B, is increased

133
Q

Critical Period

A

Time during early postnatal life when the development and maturation of functional properties of the brain, its ‘plasticity’, is strongly dependent on experience or environmental influences

134
Q

What happens to synaptic connections during a critical period

A

Correlated patterns of activity are thoughtful to mediate critical periods by stabilizing concurrently active synaptic connections and weakening or eliminating connections whose activity is divergent

135
Q

How do we know there is a critical period?

A

The complete absence of certain experiences during critical periods prevents the development of associated brain functions

136
Q

Protoplasmic astrocytes

A
  • Exist in grey matter
  • Bushy appearance with highly arborized short processes
137
Q

Fibrous astrocytes

A
  • exist in white matter
  • elongated appearance with long and less complex processes
138
Q

Morphogenesis of astrocytes during postnatal development

A
  1. Long major branches invade the domains of neighboring astrocytes
  2. Ramification into smaller processes increases while the domain invasion reduces
  3. Acquisition of complex morphologies within distinct domains
139
Q

Astrocytes are coupled together via ________ at the tips of astrocyte processes

A

gap junctions

140
Q

Astrocyte gap junctions facilitate

A

intercellular synchronization and perform important homeostatic roles

141
Q

The brain paradox

A
  • The brain requires continuous energy but lacks fuel stores
  • The brain uses glucose as its main source of energy, which comes from the circulatory system
  • Most brain energy is used at synapses to sustain the effective and rapid transfer of information
142
Q

Astrocyte Function

A
  • maintenance of ion homeostasis
  • neurotransmitter uptake and recycling
  • synaptogenesis during early postnatal development
  • synapse removal and maturation
  • regulation of blood flow during
143
Q

Astrocyte intracellular Ca2+ signaling

A
  • astrocytes do not generate or propagate action potentials
  • astrocytes are proposed to regulate neurons via intracellular Ca2+-dependent signaling
144
Q

How silencing astrocyte Ca2+ signaling alters behavior

A

signaling astrocyte Ca2+ signaling in the striatum changes neuronal activities and results in behavioral alterations resembling obsessive-compulsive disorder

145
Q

Reactive astrocytes

A

astrocytes that undergo morphological, molecular, and functional changes in response to pathological situations in surrounding tissue (due to CNS disease, injury, deleterious experimental manipulation)

146
Q

Changes in gene expression, morphology, metabolism, and physiology result in

A

gain of new function(s) or loss of homeostatic ones

147
Q

Moderate astrocyte reactivity

A

astrocytes become hypertrophic, territories of processes do not overlap

148
Q

Severe astrocyte reactivity

A

Astrocytes from glial scars with extensive overlap of processes

149
Q

Protective aspects of reactive astrocytes

A
  • homeostatic support
  • release of growth factors
  • phagocytosis of debris
150
Q

Detrimental aspects of reactive astrocytes

A
  • release of cytokines
  • oxidative stress
  • synaptic damage
151
Q

Huntington’s Disease (HD)

A

a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a defect in the Huntingtin gene

152
Q

Cytosol is the watery fluid inside the cell of a neuron enclosed by a neuronal membrane. What is the composition of the cytosol?

A

Potassium-rich solution

153
Q

What does cell theory state?

A

The elementary functional unit of all animal tissues is the individual cell?

154
Q

A neuron establishes a resting membrane potential under the condition where intracellular K+ concentration is ~150 nM, while extracellular K+ concentration is ~5nM. How does the membrane potential of this neuron change when extracellular K+ concentration is artificially elevated to 50 nM?

A

Depolarization because less potassium diffuses out of the neuron

155
Q

Charge on the inside of the cell membrane during resting membrane potential

A

The cytosol along the inside surface of the cell membrane has a negative charge compared to the outside

156
Q

Why are action potentials “all or none”?

A

depolarizing the neuronal membrane has no effect until the membrane potential crosses a threshold

157
Q

What does the myelin sheath consist of?

A

many layers of membrane provided by oligodendrocytes

158
Q

What is synaptic transmission

A

The process of information transfer at a synapse

159
Q

Into what categories are neurotransmitter receptors classified?

A

transmitter-gated ion channels & G-protein-coupled receptors

160
Q

What does Hebb’s postulate refer to?

A

Synaptic rearrangements that occur in response to simultaneous presynaptic and postsynaptic activity

161
Q

True or false, microglia only function under pathological conditions

A

False

162
Q

The Nernst equation and Goldman equation

A

calculate the equilibrium potential for specific ions and the resting membrane potential

163
Q

Action potential is explained by

A

The voltage and time-dependent changes in the permeability of the neuronal membrane to Na+ and K+

164
Q

Type I Oligodendrocyte

A
  • small, rounded cell body
  • high number of very fine processes emerging in multiple directions
  • present in grey AND white matter
165
Q

Type II Oligodendrocyte

A
  • polygonal shape
  • fewer and thicker processes directed toward axons
  • Present in WHITE matter
166
Q

Type III Oligodendrocyte

A
  • bulky cell body
  • one to four processes directed toward axons
  • present in WHITE matter
167
Q

Type IV Oligodendrocyte

A
  • elongated cell body
  • adhere and extend to medium or large axons
  • present in WHITE matter
168
Q

Myelin is composed of

A

Lipids, water, and proteins

169
Q

2 coordinated motions that myelin grows in:

A
  1. lateral extension of myeline membrane layers toward the nodal region
  2. Wrapping of leading edge at the innermost tongue
170
Q

The 3 myelin waves of rapid synchronized change are

A
  1. early adolescence
  2. adolescence
  3. aging
171
Q

Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Cells (OPCs) are located in the:

A
  • developing brain
  • mature circuits
172
Q

OPCs can turn into

A

myelinating Oligodendrocytes

173
Q

Intrinsic Myelination

A
  • activity-independent
  • OPCs guide Oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination of axons using encoded programs
174
Q

Adaptive Myelination

A
  • activity-dependent
  • size and number of myelin sheaths are modified by neuronal activity
175
Q

Existing Oligodendrocytes undergo ___________ to alter sheath length and thickness and generate new sheaths

A

Plasticity

176
Q

Functions of Oligodendrocytes in CNS

A
  1. Myelination of axons
  2. Regulation of ion channel expression at node of ranvier
  3. Maturation and maintenance of the node of Ranvier
  4. Modulation of neuronal excitability and neurotransmitter release
  5. Metabolic support to axons and ion homeostatic maintenance
177
Q

Remyelination

A

The regenerative process by which myelin sheaths are restored to demyelinated axons

178
Q

Axonal Degeneration

A

the process of destruction of axons that results in the loss of neuronal communications

179
Q

Microglia are derived from

A

progenitor cells in the yolk sac

180
Q

Neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes originate from a

A

common lineage of neural stem cells within the neuroectoderm

181
Q

Resting (surveillant) microglia characteristics

A
  • ramified morphology
  • physiological condition
182
Q

Activated microglia characteristics

A
  • swollen morphology with larger cell body and shorter, thicker processes
  • during development and pathological condition
183
Q

Synaptic pruning is

A

the process of synapse elimination during early childhood until early adulthood

foundations of neuroscience (2 decks)

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