Unit 2 -

Question 1

hindsight bias

Answer 1

the tendency to
believe, after learning an outcome,
that one would have foreseen it.

(Also known as the I-knew-it-all-
along phenomenon.)

Question 2

critical thinking

Answer 2

thinking that
does not blindly accept arguments
and conclusions. Rather, it
examines assumptions, assesses
the source, discerns hidden values,
evaluates evidence, and assesses
conclusions.

Question 3

theory

Answer 3

an explanation using an
integrated set of principles that
organizes observations and predicts
behaviors or events.

Question 4

hypothesis

Answer 4

a testable prediction,
often implied by a theory.

Question 5

operational definition

Answer 5

a carefully
worded statement of the exact
procedures (operations) used in a
research study. For example, human
intelligence may be operationally
defined as what an intelligence test
measures.

Question 6

replication

Answer 6

repeating the essence
of a research study, usually with
different participants in different
situations, to see whether the
basic finding extends to other
participants and circumstances.

Question 7

case study

Answer 7

a descriptive
technique in which one individual
or group is studied in depth in
the hope of revealing universal
principles.

Question 8

naturalistic observation

Answer 8

observing and recording behavior
in naturally occurring situations
without trying to manipulate and
control the situation.

Question 9

survey

Answer 9

a technique for
ascertaining the self-reported
attitudes or behaviors of a particular
group, usually by questioning a
representative, random sample of
the group.

Question 10

sampling bias

Answer 10

a flawed
sampling process that produces an
unrepresentative sample.

Question 11

population

Answer 11

all those in a group
being studied, from which samples
may be drawn. (Note: Except for
national studies, this does not refer
to a country’s whole population.)

Question 12

random sample

Answer 12

a sample that
fairly represents a population
because each member has an equal
chance of inclusion.

Question 13

correlation

Answer 13

a measure of the
extent to which two variables
change together, and thus of how
well either variable predicts the
other.

Question 14

correlation coefficient

Answer 14

a statistical
index of the relationship between two
variables (from -1.0 to +1.0).

Question 15

scatterplot

Answer 15

a graphed cluster of
dots, each of which represents the
values of two variables. The slope
of the points suggests the direction
of the relationship between the
two variables. The amount of
scatter suggests the strength of the
correlation (little scatter indicates
high correlation).

Question 16

illusory correlation

Answer 16

the
perception of a relationship where
none exists.

Question 17

experiment

Answer 17

a research method in
which an investigator manipulates
one or more factors (independent
variables) to observe the effect on
some behavior or mental process
(the dependent variable). By
random assignment of participants,
the experimenter aims to control
other relevant variables.

Question 18

experimental group

Answer 18

in an
experiment, the group exposed to
the treatment, that is, to one version
of the independent variable.

Question 19

control group

Answer 19

in an experiment,
the group not exposed to the
treatment; contrasts with the
experimental group and serves as
a comparison for evaluating the
effect of the treatment.

Question 20

random assignment

Answer 20

assigning
participants to experimental and
control groups by chance, thus
minimizing preexisting differences
between the different groups.

Question 21

double-blind procedure

Answer 21

an
experimental procedure in which
both the research participants and
the research staff are ignorant
(blind) about whether the research
participants have received the
treatment or a placebo. Commonly
used in drug-evaluation studies.

Question 22

placebo effect

Answer 22

experimental results caused by
expectations alone; any effect
on behavior caused by the
administration of an inert substance
or condition, which the recipient
assumes is an active agent.

Question 23

independent variable

Answer 23

the
experimental factor that is
manipulated; the variable whose
effect is being studied.

Question 24

confounding variable

Answer 24

a factor
other than the independent variable
that might produce an effect in an
experiment.

Question 25

dependent variable

Answer 25

the outcome
factor; the variable that may change
in response to manipulations of the
independent variable.

Question 26

validity

Answer 26

the extent to which a test
or experiment measures or predicts
what it is supposed to.

Question 27

descriptive statistics

Answer 27

numerical
data used to measure and describe
characteristics of groups. Includes
measures of central tendency and
measures of variation.

Question 28

histogram

Answer 28

a bar graph depicting a
frequency distribution.

Question 29

mode

Answer 29

the most frequently
occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Question 30

mean

Answer 30

the arithmetic average of
a distribution, obtained by adding
the scores and then dividing by the
number of scores.

Question 31

median

Answer 31

the middle score in a
distribution; half the scores are
above it and half are below it.

Question 32

skewed distribution

Answer 32

a
representation of scores that lack
symmetry around their average
value.

Question 33

range

Answer 33

the difference between
the highest and lowest scores in a
distribution.

Question 34

standard deviation

Answer 34

a computed
measure of how much scores vary
around the mean score.

Question 35

normal curve

Answer 35

(normal distribution)
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve
that describes the distribution of
many types of data; most scores fall
near the mean (about 68 percent
fall within one standard deviation
of it) and fewer and fewer near the
extremes.

Question 36

inferential statistics

Answer 36

numerical
data that allow one to generalize—
to infer from sample data the
probability of something being true
of a population.

Question 37

statistical significance

Answer 37

a
statistical statement of how likely it
is that an obtained result occurred
by chance.

Question 38

culture

Answer 38

the enduring behaviors,
ideas, attitudes, values, and
traditions shared by a group of
people and transmitted from one
generation to the next.

Question 39

informed consent

Answer 39

an ethical
principle that research participants
be told enough to enable them
to choose whether they wish to
participate.

Question 40

debriefing

Answer 40

the postexperimental
explanation of a study, including its
purpose and any deceptions, to its
participants.