Unit 1.2: The Quest For Civil Rights Flashcards
What was life like in the south pre 1917? Amendments?
-Slavery was a reason behind the civil war - south, slavery was prominent - many plantations
-1865 - 13th amendment - abolished slavery - due to Lincoln
-1868 - 14th amendment - former slaves are made US citizens - laws in the constitution apply to slaves
-1870 - 15th amendment - right to vote for black males
-Laws changing doesn’t mean attitudes change
-Plessy V Ferguson 1896
What was Plessy V Ferguson 1896?
Rule black and white people were ‘separate but equal’ - segregation legal as long as groups being segregated are being treated equally - difficult to combat segregation
What was life like in South post 1917?
-Jim Crow Laws introduced in 1917
-Facilities for AA were worse than white - social, educational and economic disadvantages
-Wilson introduced segregation in the workplace
-Poll tax on AA - couldn’t vote in national elections without paying to vote as well as literacy tests that were very difficult - limited voting - on paper, voting rights were the same but they weren’t
-Brown V Board
-Underrepresented in politics - not enough people present to fight for their rights
-Lower paid jobs - due an unequal quality of education - there were exceptions like MLK
What were the Jim Crow Laws? When were they introduced? When did they end?
-Jim Crow Laws = Southern states legalised the marginalisation of AA, they limited voting, excluded access to higher education or stopped them from getting well paid jobs - if laws were broken, some were killed or jailed - introduced in 1917
-1964 CRA 1965 VRA - ended Jim Crow Laws
What was the KKK?
-Ku Klux Klan
-Lynched coloured people
-made up of WASPs - against non-WASP but especially black people
-Resurged during the Second Red Scare and Civil Rights Movement
-Started after the civil war after the 13th amendment - disappear and become less influential - come back in the 1920s (specifically 1915) - membership increases to 5-8 million
Why did the KKK use lynchings? Statistics on lynching.
-they felt as though segregation wasnt enough and that black people needed to be terrorised into obedience
-1915-30 - 579 black men lynched
Who was Emmet Till? What was the impact of this?
-1955 - Emmet Till was a 14 year old boy who was visiting relatives in the south from Chicago and was lynched for talking with a white woman, allegedly asking her for a date as he didn’t understand souther rules, proven innocent
-it shocked many and got a lot of publicity
What was the membership of the KKK by 1925?
-The membership of the KKK by 1925, was between 3-8 million
Who did members of the KKK include?
-people of political power in the South even state governors
-those of social power such as policemen and the army
-rumours that Harding, Coolidge and Truman were all part of the KKK
What was the role of women Klan members in the KKK?
-rarely took part in more violent Klan activities such as lynchings
-but, they brought up their children up as whites supremacists and especially in rural areas
-created anti black environments that even non Klan people felt too intimated to reject it - indoctrinated children
What had more of an impact on life in the South? KKK or JCL?
-KKK
- JCLs legalised segregation, however the KKK enforced it through their actions
Why was there limited federal intervention in life in the south for AA’s?
-republicans had a Laissez faire attitude so they didnt want to get involved
-Supreme Court is the federal government and they ruled that segregation was legal
-The republicans felt like they could express opinions but could not enforce it with legislation
-Harding made a race committee but he didnt feel like it was the job of the president to make legislation based on their opinion, not a moral issue
-Depression in 1929 - main concern for the gov, not civil rights - but the CCC as part of the new deal that helped AA’s
What was the Great Migration? What is it also known as? Some other key facts?
-also known as the Northern Migration
-The Great Migration was the mass movement of about five million southern blacks to the North and West between 1915 and 1960
-During the initial wave the majority of migrants moved to major northern cities such as Chicago, Illiniois, Detroit, Michigan, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and New York
-By World War II, the migrants continued to move North but many of them headed west to Los Angeles, Oakland, San Francisco, California, Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington
Why did Black Americans emigrate north?
-North were welcoming AA and helping to solve their issues that they were facing due to the racial segregation of the South
-To get better jobs and employment opportunities
-To work in industrial areas not in agriculture
What impact did the Great Migration have on the North?
-Black people came to have political influence e.g. Chicago - the elections for mayor in 1919 - black people were listed to and a powerful black elite grew that was pro segregation
-Segregation made it more likely that AAs could try for positions in politics as a black American campaigning in a black ward was likely to sweep the black vote
-In some cities like NYC, they didnt have a political influence but they did live in smaller more segregated parts of the city with their own businesses, schools and churches - churches became important in organising protests
-Black migrants dislodged white workers especially those who were members of unions and pushing for better conditions, which allowed employers to force employees to leave unions
What impact did the Great Migration have on the South?
-The labour force shrank
-The farming areas of the South struggled to get by which was intensified by pre existing economic problems - poorest, black farmers struggled most
-Southerners tended to see their migration as black people voting with their feet over Jim Crow Laws as those who remained in the south were seen as accepting Jim Crow
What were the 3 factors that had an impact on civil rights?
- New deal and FDR
- WWII
- Truman
Why was there a shift by black voters in the 1930s? (ND&FDR)
1930s - black voters shifted from voting republican as they freed them from slavery or to voting Democrats
-believed the new deal would help them progress and recover from the depression - impact on the Roosevelt landslide
What was Roosevelt’s view on civil rights? (ND&FDR)
-Appointed some black advisers but needed the support of many who were against equal rights
-did little to advance civil rights
-restricted the number of black workers on a project if a donor to the project wanted this
What was Executive order 8802? Why was it important? (ND&FDR)
-An executive order issued when the war broke out which banned racial discrimination in the defence industry to get as many people into war work as possible regardless of their colour
How did the New Deal discriminate against Black Americas? (Alphabet agencies) (ND&FDR)
-agencies provided relief and work - people chosen to do work by merit alone but black people were constantly moved off projects to make way for whites
-Black Americans weren’t helped as many of them were farm workers who were supported in social security
-CCC helped AA’s but the rest didnt
How did Black Americans benefit from the New Deal? (ND&FDR)
-They benefited because the NRA made minimum wage equal for all colours
-new deal measures did help blacks becuase of their situation like one third of low income housing built had black tenants
-CCC - civilian conservation corps helped 200,000 AA’s
Why did Black Americans protest against the New Deal? (ND&FDR)
-About their treatment during the New Deal - sometimes having support from communists rather than black civil rights organisations
Who were the NAACP and why were they important during the 1930s? (ND&FDR)
-National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
-A group of people established in 1910 that set up legal actions against segregation in the USA, failure to support protests led to communist groups taking over
What was the impact of communist support of black civil rights? (ND&FDR)
-The impact of communists was that communist lawyers uncovered a conspiracy and men were not found guilty in a case where 9 young men were framed for raping 2 girls - communists particularity lawyers helped the AA’s
What organisations were set up during the 1930s protesting against the New Deal? Why were they important? (ND&FDR)
-Organisation that set up support systems during the Depression such as Father Divine of the Peace Mission church group set up restaurants and shops that sold food and supplies at a lower cost
-Women’s organisation like Housewives Leagues campaigned to boycott stores until they hired black workers
What was Executive order 7027 and what impact did it have? (ND&FDR)
-Set up the Resettlement Administration in 1935 that resettled low income families in new housing and lent money to black farmers who had lost homes got loans
-only helped 3400 out of 200,000 farmers
Why did Black Americans not gain from the war induced boom from 1939? (WWII)
They didn’t benefit much from the boom as white workers were given priority over them
Who was A Philip Randolph and why was he important? (WWII)
-1941 - A. Phillip Randolph threatened a 100,000 strong black march on Washington unless Roosevelt banned discrimination in the army and defence factories
Why was there an increase in Black American defence workers? (WWII)
-Executive order 8802 - prevented the march that Randolph threatened - 3% of defense workers were black 1942, 1944 it was 8%
What happened in 1943? Why was this significant? (WWII)
-1943 - outbreak in racist violence by white people becuase they had to work with black people
-meant that towns set up race relations committees to investigate improvement as riots and strikes damaged the war effort
What were some of the positive and negative impacts of white and black people working together during the war? (WWII)
-Shortage of workers meant that white skilled workers had to train black unskilled workers - worked together and became friends which affected whites reactions to post war civil rights efforts
-however, a survey at the end of the war saw that many were racist and in support of housing segregation and said jobs should be given to white peoples instead of black strikes and riots by white workers due to increase migration
Did Truman support civil rights? Why? (T)
-Supported civil rights due to the negative treatment of black soldiers after war - he thought it was unjust as they fought equally as hard as white people to save America
What did Truman fail to do with civil rights? (T)
-Failed to pass anti lynching, anti segregation and fair employment laws
Why were civil rights measures difficult to get through? (T)
-Civil rights measures difficult opposition due to southern opposition (such as the Dixiecrats) and mild northern opposition
What did Truman set up in 1946? What was its aim? (T)
-Set up the presidents committee on civil rigths in 1946 to aim to create equal oppournties in work and housing
-to create for federal support for civil rights
Why was it difficult for Truman to fight for civil rights? (T)
-Truman focused on Cold War instead of civil rights - made it difficult to have success in civil rights
Why was desegregating the military and all work done by businesses for the government an important turning point? (T)
-Important for Truman to desegregate the military using executive order 9981 in 1948 as part of his fair deal and desegregating the work done by businesses for the govenrment due to increasingly important black vote
-Truman made changes due to shock over attacks over returning black soldiers
How were civil rights fought for between 1917-55?
Peacefully, they were dressed nicely and protested calmly with signs - would show the whites who believed that blacks were aggressive, that they weren’t possibly making them begin to see each other as equals
What tactics did Black Americans use?
Non violent protest, picketing, boycotting and sit ins - drew public attention
What groups were set up to fight for civil rights?
NAACP and the National Urban League
Why did the number of civil rights groups and membership of them increase after both WWI and WWII?
NAACP went from 9000 in 1917 to 90000 in 1919 and 600,000 in 1946 because of more smaller and local organisations base around church groups
Black soldiers fought for America and whites began to want equality as they saw them as equals
What was the separatist movement?
-Black Americans were never going to have true equality to whites - should stop fighting for it - should embrace segregation and fight for equal conditions in it
-Intention: make children who were black feel proud not inferior
-Marcus Garvey 1920s - said blacks should go back to Africa
What was the Brown v Board of Education case?
-1951 - NAACP lawyers took cases to desegregate schools - overruled due to Plessy v Ferguson ‘separate but equal’
-Took the case to the SC to challenge PvF - won and got it overruled
-Judge earl warren was the SC judge in the case in 1954 - said segregating schools wasn’t equal - colleges and schools should be - set no timescale for this but added to it saying it must be done in deliberate speed
-1954 - a girl had to travel so long to school over dangerous train tracks instead of going to a closer white school
Examples of rules for non violent protests 1917-55?
-Dress well, to look respectable
-Do not be loud or abusive
-Do not fight back if attacked
-Show support for the government, in return they will support us
-Persuade white people to change their views about black people
-Encourage white people to join and protest alongside us
What was the NAACP? What were their aims and some of the things that they did?
-Set up in 1909
-Aim to gain black Americans their legal rights - mounted a campaign against lynching
-Published pamphlets about lynching, demonstrated, held marches and petitioned Congress
-Laws against lynching brought to Congress but blocked by Southern politicians e.g. storm Thurmond
-Plessy v Ferguson had said that segregation was permissible, if it was ‘separate but equal’ - made the fight for civil rights tough
-NAACP provided lawyers to defend black people on trial who it felt had been unjustly accused
Timeline of 6 significant NAACP legal cases?
- 1925-26 sweet trial - arrested and charged with murder
- 1936 Murray v Maryland - University of Maryland’s law school is desegregated
- 1946 Morgan v Virginia - Supreme Court overturns a Virginia state law segregating buses and trains that moved from one state to another
- 1948 Shelley v Kraemer - Bans regulations that bar black people from buying houses in an area in any state
- 1950 Sweatt v Painter and McLaurin v Oklahoma - Desegregates graduate and professional schools in Texas and Oklahoma
- 1954 Brown v Board of Education of Topeka - Desegregates schools: first use of evidence that, as well as unequal provision, segregation was psychologically harmful for black schoolchildren
Who was Thurgood Marshall?
-Chief legal counsel for the NAACP
-Won 29/32 segregation cases
-Nominated to important legal positions by Kennedy and Johnson
-Became the first black American to serve in the Supreme Court
What is direct action?
The use of strikes, demonstrations, or other public forms of protest rather than negotiation to achieve one’s demands
Why was there a shift towards direct action in the 1940s and 50s when it came to the quest for civil rights?
-rights weren’t being expanded at a fast enough rate
-peaceful protesting wasnt doing enough
-people wanted to see what it would be like to do something different
-there were other protests around that time such as the workers strikes and they took inspiration from trade unioners and others
What was the economic position of black Americans by 1917?
-Southern Homestead Act 1866 - 44 million acres handed out to 4000 former slaves - poor quality and they didnt have the funds to invest in seeds and equipment so they couldn’t make any money of the land given to them
-1870s the ‘Exoduster’ movement moved slaves to find new land
-Tuskegee Negro Normal Institute - 1881 - black boys given skills in farming
-20% of black farmers owned land by 1910
What was the social and legal position of black Americans by 1917?
-‘Black Codes’ didnt allow POC to hold office or vote and introduced vagrancy rules but these were suspended by federal officials within a year
-Violence increased - in 1865, in the Shreveport area of Louisiana over 2000 AA’s killed
-Jack Dupree spoke about equal rights and his throat was cut by the KKK in front of his wife
-1876, 70,000 blacks at school in the south compared to none in 1860
-Literacy rates increased by 31% between 1865-1960
What was the political position of black Americans by 1917?
-60 ex confederates & former VP of the confederacy voted into congress - extreme racism
-President Grant introduced three Force Acts - authorised federal supervision of elections and then the ‘KKK act’ dealt with terrorism and allowed the suspension of habeas corpus
-1871- KKK suppressed
-1900 - 181,000 AA males but 3000 registered to vote in Alabama
-1900 - George White was the only black congressman - not anymore blacks in for another 28 years
2 examples of black Americans who took part in the northern migration?
- James Earl Jones
- Carl and Nannie Hansberry
Give a detailed summary of James Earl Jones taking part in the northern migration and the impact it had on his life?
-migrated with his grandparents
-he was ridiculed when he stuttered due to his anxieties of abandonment and went mute
-he later became a Tony award winning actor for his personages in Fences as well as in films like Roots and Lion King - he was able to express himself through theatre due to the migration
Give a detailed summary of Carl and Nannie Hansberry taking part in the northern migration and the impact it had on his life?
-moved during WWI to the all white neighbourhood
-they bought the house in secret with the help of progressive white real estate agents
-howling mobs surrounded their home, threw bricks, nearly killing their youngest daughter
-they were forced to moved when a lawsuit was filed against them which was supported by state courts but they took it to the SC and the 1940 decision helped decrease segregation
-1959 - Hansberry play ‘A Raisin in the Sun’ - the first AA woman play to be performed on broadway
What was the Illinois Central Railroad?
A railroad that helped black Americans migrate to Chicago and other cities in the North and the West, it also led to increased employment in the African American community, some were janitors, porters, firemen, or brakemen, it played a large role in integrating African Americans into the US society
Reasons for and against why the northern migration was significant for AA’s?
Against
-Hostilities and hierarchies continued - sundown towns that banned AA’s after dark
-Constitution of Oregon prohibited black people from entering the state until 1926
-Lowest paying, most dangerous jobs, barred from unions
-Dilapidated housing - least desirable sections of cities - Harlem
-Restrictive covenants = outlaw AA from buying, leasing or living in properties of white neighbourhoods - 85% of Chicago
-Redlining = refused to approve or guarantee mortgages in areas where black people lived denied them access to mortgages in their own neighbourhood
For
-Fair Housing Act 1968
-Led to the Civil Rights Movement - MLK campaigning for fairer housing in 1966 where one placard said that ‘King would look good with a knife in his back’
-Significant figures arose e.g. Malcolm X who was fuelled by anger and vengeance when his father died a violent and mysterious death after fighting for civil rights in the north which plunged them into poverty
Why did a shift towards direct action in the 1940s and 1950s begin?
Peaceful protests weren’t doing enough
WWII - black soldiers fought and whites began to want equality, fought in Britain where there was no segregation and women getting more rights so blacks saw this as a shift towards equality and they took the opportunity
Economic stability - new deal happened - lend lease programmed during WWII - economy isn’t a major focus so there is more scope for individuals to do something about civil rights as they arent distracted
Legal action was slow moving - Desperate to achieve change even though there was some successes
2 examples of direct action 1930-1955?
- CORE - congress of racial equality, set up in 1942 to campaign for civil rights by non violent means, pioneered the tactics of sit ins, jail ins and freedom rides
- Fellowship for reconciliation - a peace based organisation founded in 1914, they went on a journey of reconciliation in 1947 riding inter state buses through southern states
Why did the Montgomery Bus Boycott take place?
-Truman failed to pass anti segregation laws - focused on the Cold War
-Southern opposition meant that it was hard to desegregate
-Brown V Board overturned PvF - segregation was no longer based on ‘separate but equal’ - if you prove you arent treated equally, no segregation - BvB paved the way for further desegregation
-1946 - Morgan v Virginia, Virginia law ended segregation on public transport - inspired Montgomery
-Eisenhower focused on Cold War but supported civil rights - he came to power in 1955, and inspired the possibility for change - saw how blacks played an important role in the war and deserved equality
What happened during the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
-1955 - led by Joan Robinson - established the women political council
-many were attacked on buses by drivers and forced to sit in the black section even though the bus was empty - led to many arrests of black women including Rosa Parks (her arrest initiated the boycott)
-Get support from a civil rights lawyer & MLK (leader of Montgomery improvement association)
-They boycotted the buses - found had alternative transport - whites joined the boycott
-Fliers handed out and media coverage
-50,000 AA’s helped in the boycott
-Lasted 1 year from Dec 1955-56 - takes a year for the desegregation of buses
What strategies did the Montgomery Bus Boycott use to achieve its objectives?
-used influential figures, important individuals who would be able to support them in case of opposition (this was before MLK became really influential) and handed out fliers around universities
-radical students and no violence, and community mobilisation, even though it was direct action, it was a form of legal challenging as that was the income
-The support of the ordinary people was significant in ensuring this worked as well as the speed at which people became aware of this - 50,000
-Grassroots people played a huge role, the big individuals also played a role but without the people, there would be no change
What were the consequences of the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
-Took a year but the buses were desegregated in 1956 by the Supreme Court by declaring bus segregation as unconstitutional
-The racial divide was hardened
-White candidates who favoured segregation were elected in the next local elections - peaceful protests didnt actually mean that white people had more respect for people of colour
-3 days after the buses were desegregated, Kings home was firebombed and snipers shot at black passengers whilst sitting in white seats
-Violence eventually calmed down but it did take several years
What was the impact of the Montgomery Bus Boycott on Black Civil Rights?
-It showed that direct action, worked - not necessarily faster than legal action but it did work
-made more individuals want to peacefully protest - a united community can achieve change
-Because it took fairly long for change to happen, it maybe played a role in encouraging more violent protests that could possibly yield results at a faster rate
-Showed that even with peaceful protests, AA’s would struggle to gain respect from whites
-Created hope for possibility where all would be equal with one another
-Proved that maybe this was the way forward to achieve civil rights (protests and marches) and that legal action wasnt going to be a long term method of gaining more rights
What are the 7 campaigns that took place in the South?
- Montgomery Bus Boycott
- Little Rock Nine
- Greensboro sit ins
- Student nonviolent coordinating committee (SNCC)
- Freedom Riders
- Birmingham Riots
- Freedom Summer
What happened at Little Rock? When?
-4 Sep 1957 - 9 black children were selected to attend a previously all white Central high school
-8 children went by car with the NAACP but 1 child – Elizabeth Eckford went on her own
-she was turned away because the governor had called the Arkansas national guard to prevent the students from entering
-she got surrounded by a mob where she was heckled at and went back to her bus stop
-At the time Arkansas had a racist governor - Orval Faubus
What were the successes of Little Rock?
-Eisenhower sent federal troops to guard the children going to school showing government support
-Central school was integrated even after being closed for a year by the governor
-showed the failures of the central government in enforcing integration in schools
What were the failures of Little Rock?
-Local NAACP leader had their homes fire bombed
-Other schools in the South attempted to integrate which caused riots where people were killed
-In the classrooms, dining halls and at home black children were subjected to years of violence and taunting
What organisation was involved with Little Rock? Which individuals were involved?
NAACP
National Guard
Eisenhower
MLK
Elizabeth Eckford
Orval Faubus
What was the media coverage of Little Rock?
-Photographers filmed the mob with Elizabeth Eckford
-250 photographers and reporters were present
What happened during the Greensboro sit ins? When?
-February 1960 four black students went into a department store in Greensboro and kept waiting to be served until the store shut
-the students returned the next day to continue the protest
What were the success of the Greensboro sit ins?
-30 students joined in and soon after nearly all the seats were occupied
-Sit ins spread to 55 different cities
-Media was filled with images of calm black students waiting to be served being shouted at by groups of white people
What were the limitations of the Greensboro sit ins?
-White youths heckled the participants in the sit ins they yelled at them, blew smoke in their faces or poured food over them until the shop finally shut due to bomb scares
Which organisations were involved with the Sit Ins? Which individuals?
-Martin Luther King (leader of MIA) said that “By sitting down we were standing up for the best in American Tradition.”
-SNCC
The Greensboro four were:
-Joe Mcneil
-David Richmond
-Junior Blair
-Frank Mccain
What was the media coverage of the Greensboro sit ins?
-News spread and more and more people began joining the sit ins
-By March sit ins had spreads to 55 cities
-The media was filled with images of calm well dressed black students sitting waiting to be served while a crowd of white louts yell at them
What was the SNCC?
-Student nonviolent Coordinating Committee formed in early 1960s - It was a racialy integrated organization of youth, who believed in non-violent direct action
-Aimed to encourage voter registration, doing so by sending out ‘field secretaries’ to racist areas of south
-Took part in protests where violence was likely e.g. After Greensboro sit-ins, alongside CORE and supported NAACP and MLK due to similar ideological goals and strategies worked together at other places such as Selma and Montgomery
-Moved away from non-violence in mid 60s under leadership of Stokely Carmichael, who integrated ideas of Black power
What were the successes of the SNCC?
-It began the non violent sit in movement in greensboro
-Provided a community for students to contribute to the movement as they had a greater motivation to act
-Provided training sessions detailing how to respond to acts of aggression put upon them by those who rejected civil rights
What were the limitations of the SNCC?
-Despite the segregation on buses being deemed as unconstitutional they had to put heir lived on the line to determine that it shouldn’t persist despite the Supreme Court ruling
-Black peoples were still being arrested by the police for their actions wether they were peaceful or not
-They had to abandon their nonviolent approach when it failed to work
Which organisations were involved with the SNCC? Which individuals?
SNCC
CORE
NAACP
MLK
Stokely Carmichael
What was the media coverage of the SNCC?
Extensive coverage of events they participated in such as Sit ins
What were the Freedom Rides?
-Occurred in 1961, organised by SNCC and CORE
-Rides were to testwhether bus restroom facilities had been desegregated in line with the 1961 Supreme Court ruling
-Farmer admitted that they planned the rides to create a crisis that would receive large media coverage - desperate action to provoke change
-The first 2 buses were attacked
-In Alabama one of the buses was firebombed, after being chased by 50 cars
-Many riders wereimprisoned and beat up, 3 were killed
What were the successes of the Freedom Rides?
-Showed media coverage of the violence which unfolded which gave attention to civil rights
-450 involved
-Showed that nonviolent direct action could do more than simply claim the moral highground and could deliver better results than violent confrontation.
What were the limitations of the Freedom Rides?
-The freedom riders knew that the further they went into the south, the less likely they were to carry out desegregation.
-The first two buses were attacked and riders, black and white , were beaten up at several stops.
-Worse followed as in Alabama, one of the buses was firebombed after the bus had been chased by about 50 cars, some of them police cars.
-This shows how the southern divide opposed the freedom riders and werenot open to the idea of change.
Which organisations were involved with the freedom rides? Which individuals were involved?
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
Student Nonviolent Coordination Committee (SNCC)
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
James Farmer
Joe Felmet
Andrew Johnnson
^ sentenced to chain gang
What was the media coverage freedom rides?
-The media covered shocking levels of violence as freedom fighters were imprisoned in Birmingham and beaten up in Montgomery, three were killed, but others kept on riding
What happened in Birmingham?
-1963 MLK went Birmingham, Alabama (‘most segregated city in America’)
-Hundreds of protestors arrested in non-violent demonstrations to eliminate segregation laws in public spaces
-No previous protests happened in it
-Eugene Bull Connor backed by maj. of white residents – determined to stop demonstrations
-Limited protest volunteers, MLK enlisted hundreds of schoolchildren to continue movement and fill jails
-2nd day: violence, high pressure fire hoses and dogs, beaten and killed
-Widely televised
-Attracted support for civil rights movement
What were the successes of Birmingham?
-MLK and Birmingham leaders reached an agreement
-Within months, segregation laws were abolished
-Symbol of sacrifices made by many to fight for civil rights
-Attracted more people to join the movement
-Highlighted issues with white supremacy – willing to sacrifice the lives of children
-Knew it was a hard fight but it was their goal ‘if we can desegregate Birmingham, we can do so anywhere’
What were the limitations of Birmingham?
-School children were used to protest – MLK organised this – blame for the death of these?
-Many got arrested in response to the protests
-Violence was used against the protestors
What organisations was involved with Birmingham? What individuals?
SCLC
MLK
Janis Kelsey - one of the schoolchildren arrested
Reverend Calvin Woods
What was the media coverage in Birmingham?
-Pictures of children being sprayed with fire hoses and dogs being used to attack them were shared worldwide
-President Kennedy saw them and described being ashamed when he saw them
-42% percent of people in USA thought race was the biggest issue in America after the Birmingham protests
What was the Freedom Summer?
-1964
-Large numbers of volunteers sent to the South
-Trained African Americans to pass voters registration test
-SNCC joined with local organisations
-20th June - first group of students were set out - 1 day later, three disappeared and were found dead 6 months later - 6 murders and 35 shootings in total alongside beatings
What were the successes of the Freedom Summer?
-Around 17000 black people tried to register
What were the limitations of the Freedom Summer?
-Volunteers kept going missing and dying - media mainly covered this not the rest
-Slow to encourage and train people to pas registration tests
-35 shooting incidents and many beatings - 6 dead
-Only 1600 were accepted
What organisations were involved with freedom summer? Which individuals?
SNCC
Schwerner
Chaney
Goodman
^^murdered in triple shooting
What was the media coverage of freedom summer?
-Media exposed violence against activists - attracted and shocked on a national scale
-covered the murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner - spurred outrage and federal intervention
-Photographs and broadcasts humanized activists and highlighted systemic racism
-Southern newspapers misrepresented the movement - but The Southern Courier was fair
-Media pressure contributed to the Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965)
What did some think was the way forward for the civil rights movement?
Increasing radicalisation NOT direct action or legal action
Why were there divisions between the different facets of the civil rights movement?
-Divisions arose from disagreements over methods and goals for which Black Americans were fighting
-There were clashes, jealousy and rivalry between leaders
What was the media’s role in divisions and tensions between the facets civil rights movements? Who did they target, who did they support?
-During 60s, media represented some groups as radical and others as moderate - only shows positive side of MLK and presents other methods of protest in a negative light
-NAACP and NUL (National Urban League) were presented as moderates due to commitment to work through courts and willingness to work with white population - media supported them as they were ‘doing the right thing’
-CORE and SNCC were called radicals because they advocated self defence - MLK said you should never fight back if they remove you
Who criticised who in the civil rights movement and for what reasons?
-MLK and SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference) - led by MLK - criticised by moderates for being too radical, while radicals attacked them for being too moderate
What was the issue with labelling some facets of the civil rights movement as too radical and others as too moderate?
‘Moderate’ and ‘Radical’ have not got fixed definitions - their definitions changes on a person by person basis as well as over time changes too
What did the different facets of the civil rights movement disagree about? Why (due to what group)?
-The use of violence in the fight for black civil rights
-The extent to which black and white people should collaborate in the campaign for racial equality
-How far de jure change could bring about de facto change
-The extent to which black people should seek integration
-Due to the SNCC, CORE and SCLC becoming more radical in 60s
What were the Ghetto Riots? Why did they take place? What happened to calm them down?
-1964-1969 in NYC, Chicago and Philadelphia
-due to police brutality and overcrowded ghettos where poor facilities were at the worst they had ever been
-government intervention was acceptable to calm the violence
What did the media coverage of the Ghetto Riots do? What was the impact of the riots?
-the image of non violent blacks assaulted by whites was replaced by images of burning cities
-hastened civil rights legislation and brought a white backlash
What were the Watts Riots? What impact did this have on civil rights? Why?
-1965 in LA
-attempted to end mistreatment by police and discrimination in housing, schools and employment
-showed civil rights legislaiton and limited government aid as $40 million worth of damage was done on buildings and there were 34 deaths
What did the Black Panthers believe in? When were they set up?
-1966
-needed pragmatic, tangible solutions by working on a local level to see immediate results instead of long term
-wanted separation in the US or by leaving the country altogether - created the Back 2 Africa
What did the Black Panthers do?
-worked in black communities keeping order, organising community projects e.g. free school breakfasts
-created a 10 point programme which included decent housing and black history uni courses
Did the Black Panthers gain attention? What was their impact?
-gained government attention as they wore uniform and carried guns - communist work was overlooked
-radicalised long term civil rights groups even the NAACP
Who was Stokely Charmichael? What did he do? When? Why? What was their slogan? (BLACKPM)
-Stokely Charmichael - leader of the SNCC
-1965 - set up the Lowndes County Freedom Organisation - to prevent votes going to white southerners - ‘vote for the panther then go home’
What was the LCFO and Charmichael part of? (BLACKPM)
The Black Power movement
What did James Meredith in 1966? What happened to him? What did this lead to? (BLACKPM)
-1966 - Meredith led the March Against Fear through Mississippi - he shot dead on 2nd day of protest
-MLK took over and urged non violent protests
-Charmichael said that this wasnt working so instead wanted the SNCC and CRM to exclude and radicalise white campaigners
What happened at the olympics? What year?
-raised arm and clenched fist was used by AA athletes who won Olympic medals in 1968
When was the Nation of Islam set up? What did they believe in?
-set up in 1930
-they supported segregation - didn’t believe that white people should be involved with civil rights movement
-said blacks shouldn’t work with those who made them into slaves, lynched them, raped them etc.
-200,000 members
-didn’t believe integration would be possible
What 4 things happened as a result of the increasing radicalisation in the civil rights movement in the 1960s?
- The Ghetto Riots
- Black Power
- Nation of Islam
- Black Panthers
Where did MLK grow up? How did this influence his views on civil rights?
-grew up in the city’s Sweet Auburn neighbourhood in a religious household which was home to some of the most prominent and prosperous African Americans in the country (Atlanta, Georgia)
-saw integration and saw black people succeed, saw this as a possibility for the future of America
What is MLK’s education background? How did this influence his views on civil rights?
-he was a gifted student and attended segregated public schools and at the age of 15 was admitted to Morehouse College where he studied medicine and law
-King entered Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania where he earned a bachelor of Divinity degree, he was elected president of his predominantly white senior class
-experienced segregation but not in the negative way like Malcolm X - worked alongside them successfully
Who was MLK influenced by? How did this influence him and therefore his views on civil rights?
-influenced by Dr Benjamin Mays who was an advocate for racial equality
-became a pastor - great public speaker
-meant that he was inspired by others to also advocate for racial equality - exposed to hope in integration
What did MLK believe could happen?
-believed in equality and that Jeffersons words of all men being equally would come true - truly believed that this was possible even in Mississippi and the most segregated places
-Eliminating injustice and discrimination so that every child could live together and work together
-Had hope that there would be freedom in all places
What was Malcolm X’s childhood like? How did this influence his views on civil rights?
-he was born Malcolm Little (Little being his slave name so changed it to X as he didnt know his family name) in Michigan but moved to Harlem where he got involved in crime and was arrested
-Family was terrorised by the KKK and dad was murdered by racist whites
-meant he focused on slums and inequality that AA’s faced in daily life
What did Malcolm X join? When?
-1952 - joined Nation of Islam - black Muslim group - that is when he changed his name to Malcolm X
What are Malcolm X’s most famous quotes? What did it mean?
-‘either the ballot or the bullet’ - advocated for self defence - thought that the days of peaceful protests were over
-‘by any means necessary’ - do whatever is necessary to get rigths
What did Malcolm X believe?
-didnt believe in white integration in the civil rights movement of that white politicians would ever do more than what they were forced to - thus saw MLKs work as useless - didn’t think integration would work unless bourgeois blacks and liberal whites were on top
-Moderate civil rights leaders made people look past African Americans
-Believed in independence of African Americans in America, believed in everyone being registered - to get immediate results and get enemies out of office - believe in segregation and the movement having no support from whites - motivated the government as they wanted to appear united and this was divisive??
When was Malcolm X assassinated? What happened before his assassination?
-Assassinated in 1965
-before his death, he began to have meetings with King and became less radical
What are similarities and differences between MLK and Malcolm X?
Similarities: both good public speakers, got media coverage, both advocating for civil rights, both argued for community (MLK wanted equality but MX was more separate communities but present)
Differences: MLK was a liberal, Malcom X is socialist, MX had little hope in America, MLK is pro unity and MX is anti unity, MX is promoting black people and their power saying that they’ve been down trodden but they’re powerful
What was MLK hoping to achieve with the Northern Crusade? When was it? Where?
-1966 In Chicago
-hoped to achieve: ‘a surrender of forces dedicated to the creation and maintenance of slums’, an increase in supply of housing option for low income families, rehabbing public housing amenities and federal supervision of nondiscriminatory granting of loans by banks
-The crusade also wanted to organise tenant unions (to allow residents to stand up to landlords about peeling lead based paint on their walls)
What were MLKs successes with the Northern Crusade?
-held a powerful speech saying that blacks were lynched economically and spiritually in the north, and posted demands for improvement on the door of Chicago City Hall
-got a lot of media attention in the speech as well as due to being beat up - 30,000 listening to MLK
-was able to gain sympathy from others when he was attacked
-being beat up showed the extent to which he felt passionate about this which motivated people to join the movement as it showed again how far white extremism had gone
-the demonstrations began to take place in other nearby cities such as Louiseville
-After MLKs death, the Fair Housing Act was signed into law by LBJ in 1968, it was an important step and also meant fair housing groups got congressional backing
-moved into a slum apartment in Chicago West Side with his family
What were MLK’s failures with the Northern Crusade?
-was going to demand less property discrimination but was swarmed with 700 whites with bricks
-the crusade was the most hostile demonstration
-the FHA 1968 didnt remove the problems that the demonstrations were trying to combat
-the slums did not end, whilst he was alive he didnt motivate the president to pass the act but LBJ did so to allow MLK to have a legacy
Who led (other than MLK) the Northern Crusade?
-the Chicago Freedom Movement - they were led by James Bevel (he also helped organise the march on Birmingham)
What was the impact of MLK assassination on civil rights in America?
-Assassinated in 1968
-Black and white poeple mourned his assassination - but the killing widened the rift between both races - many black people saw the assassination of MLK as a rejection of their pursuit in equality through non violence
-Radicalised many moderate African Americans - fuelled black power movement and the black panther party in late 60s
-Most influential and widely known civil rights leader
-Campaign to honour him began after his death - wanted to create a national holiday - signed into law in 1983 by Reagan
-There was opposition to the national holiday with critics pointing to Kings adultery and his influence by communists
What was the impact of MX’s assassination on civil rights in America?
-Assassinated in 1965
-20,000 people paying respects to his body in Harlem
-MLK said that his death ‘deprived the world of a great leader’
-Led to a mistrust in the government of the US - many thought that the FBI and CIA didnt try to intervene during the assassination and also due to the reaction of the media who labeled him as a racist and dangerous man - people mistrusted those in power - led to self reliance and an increase in radicalisation for some as they grew even more agitated with the whites in power
How did MLK and MX influence each other?
-MX’s views on self defense to defend against police brutality - MLK as he advocated for nonviolence but still had guards in the south to protect him at demonstrations to protect from racial terror
-MLK had armed guards in Montgomery after his home was firebombed in BB 1955-56
-King argued that non violence was a moral and political strategy and that white racism would make black people as bad as the people who were oppressing them and that realistically, violence, wouldn’t work as there weren’t enough black people even if they were armed
-1963 - MLK spoke out against MX in terms of Birmingham - he said non violence is a weapon of strength and of the people who are powerfully and brave and heroic
-Voting rights act 1965 - caused largest civil disturbance in America history - MLK and MX start to converge - MX said that the march on Washington was a farce as they should’ve paralysed Washington
What were the roles on MX and MLK in the US? (Attorneys)
-Malcolm = like a prosecuting attorney who prosecutes whites for crimes against humanity to blacks
-King = like a defence attorney as he defends both to each other - says that they are both good people and want peace - justifies the civil rigths movment to both sides
Timeline of civil rights legislation from 1957-1972?
- CRA 1957 Civil Rights Commission set up - gives the federal justice department more rights to supervise voter registration
- 1962 - JFK executive order 1106 bans discrimination in federal housing allocation
- CRA 1964
- VRA 1965
- FHA 1968
- Education Amendments Act 1972 - restricts busing by giving more money to inner city schools for improvements
What was the CRA 1964?
Bans discrimination for sex or race in hiring, firing and promoting; Equal opportunities commission is set up to enforce this
What was the VRA 1965?
Passed banning any attempts to stop people voting because of their race; provisions are put in place for five years for federal enforcement of this; the enforcement provisions have to be reconfirmed with extensions 1970, 1975, 1982 and 2007
What was Johnson’s role in passing civil rights legislation?
-‘No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honour President Kennedy memory’s than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long’ - Johnson
-The quote above helped convince senate to pass the CRA 1964
-Great society embedded civil rights legislation
-VRA 1965 outlawed literacy tests that prevent AA’s from voting
-Rise in black nationalism and radicalisation meant that the CRA 1964 had to then be expended in 1968 to prohibit discrimination in housing
What was Kennedy’s role in passing civil rights legislation?
-11th June 1963 - JFK asked for a civil rights act
-Wanted to end segregation of public facilities and wanted law suits to be brought against any state companies that refused to comply with these laws
-Mentioned that 57% of AA’s lived in unacceptable hohusing and the average life expectancy was 7 years lower than whites
-Failed to include matters of police brutality and ending discrimination in private employment
-Speech was a result of significant campaigns like Birmingham
-Cold War played a role as the America gov was condemning Russians for poor treatment of people in Eastern Europe under the communist regime, many people believed they couldnt do this while inequality was present in America
-Kennedy struggled to move his bill through congress
-Kennedy assassinated 3 months later and CRA was no where near passed
What 7 criteria can be used to see how effective civil rights was in achieving racial equality?
- Education
- Transport
- Public places
- Voting rights
- Employment and income
- Housing
- Public support for civil rights
What was achieved for education by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-BvB 1954 - overruled separate but equal was unconstitutional due to difference in facilities between white and black schools
-Little Rock 9 1957 - students sent to Little Rock high school
-Gov supported LR9 - sent national guard from Eisenhower
-CRA 1964 - couldnt stop desegregation
-CRA 1960 made it illegal to obstruct federal orders like desegregating by force or threat
-BvB 1954 - overturned PvF and desegregated of schools
-Public schools integrated
-Media coverage raised awareness
-1965, first black student in uni of Mississippi - but she was expelled due to riots
-JFK intervened in 1963 when gov of Alabama didnt want to desegregate uni - took over state troops
What was NOT achieved for education by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-No timescale given - desegregation delayed
-102 Southern Congresspeople signed southern manifest concerning BvB
-Large riots occured when unis desegregated authentic Lucy in Mississippi
-Little Rock 9 faced uproar from white students
-1 student graduated
-75% of black highschool dropouts aged 25-34 - criminal records
-Black poeple in integrated schools and college faced hatred and violence - didnt have normal education
-More black children in schools but most of these were still poor areas
-Riots started when schools tried to integrate after LR9
-The students faced violence from protesters outside school and were bullied - heckled
What was NOT achieved for transport by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-Boycott worked but hardened racial divide
-3 days after buses desegregated, MLK home was firebombed and snipers shot black passengers sitting in white seats - took years to calm it down
-Free dome rides - 1961 CORE and SNCC - buses attacked and riders were beaten
-Segregation in south on buses
-Riders imprisoned in Birmingham and beaten in Montgomery and 3 killed
-White candidates for elections who against segregation were voted in
What was achieved for transport by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-1946 Morgan v Virginia - SC overturns Virginia state law segregating buses and trains that moved from one state to another
-Montgomery BB - 1955
-Montgomery improvement association - MLK lead - 90% of AA’s stayed away from bus
-1956 - bus segregation unconstitutional SC
-City gov penalised taxi fares for faking fares
-Freedom rides - SNCC and CORE set freedom rides in 1961
-Media coverage of freedom rides and MBB - raising awareness
-MBB lasted a while - showed solidarity and the ability to have lengthy protests
What was achieved for public places by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-Greensboro sit ins - displayed through media generating sympathy from the public
-March on Washington supported by white singers like Bob Dylan - MLK well respected biggest protest up to date - up to 500,000 people involved
-CRA banned discrimination in public places
-Blacks spoke to whites in public spaces
-Aimed tand succeeded in persuading white people to change views on civil rights
What was NOT achieved for public places by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-Violence faced by protesters at greensboro during the sit ins - demonstrated attitudes were reluctant to change
-Legislation impacted housing, transport and public areas in CRA 2964 but couldnt enforce equality
-Still divided by colour line with stark economic differences - this meant AA’s still had poor conditions
What was achieved for voting rights by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-6th August 1965 VRA - banned attempts to stop people voting because of race - outlawed literacy tests used to prevent AA’s from voting
-Provisions are put in place for 5 years for enforcement of this - extended in 1970, 1975, 1982, 2007
-Freedom summer that increased voting
-1966 gov census showed 58.2% register to vote increased 1980 to 60%
-More AA’s voting
-1957 CRA and Civil rights commission - justice department supervise voter registration
-1965 campaign in Selma to registration voters
What was NOT achieved for voting rights by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-Not have equal levels to white Americans
-Not all AA’s registered
-Freedom summer failed a lot
-Selma had mass arrests and campaigners were shot
-Increased radicalisation meant the CR movement decreased in support of
What was achieved for employment and income by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-1964 CRA bans discrimination for race with hiring, firing and purchasing
-Black Americans upper and middle class developed to a significant extent
-Access to higher pressesion for black people
-Roosevelt employed black advisers to deliver new deal
-Roosevelts executive order 8803 introduced non discrimination in defence work
-Executive order 7027 - res settlement administration act 1935 - resettled low income black families into new housing
-Executive order 9981 - Truman desegregated military
-WWII meant more demand for AA workers - trained to work with white workers- changed opinions
-NRA - minimum wage equal - 1/3 low income housing must go to black tenants
What was NOT achieved for employment and income by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-Employed black people felt they were their self in hindering quota
-Couldn’t experience the same American dream as whites
-New deal agencies gave more opportunities to white young men not black
What was achieved for housing by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-1964 - MLK raised awareness of overcrowded black ghettos
-1966 - 20 riots about city slumps
-Northern crusade - set up tenant unions - fought for housing rights for AA’s
-1968 - Fair Housing Act - ended discrimination in purchasing and renting homes
-Homes ownership among blacks increased
What was NOT achieved for housing by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-Poor living conditions affected education - more likely to drop out
-Lots of ghettos - gang culture in LA with high crime rates, high child mortality, dropping out, increase in poverty
-Many blacks were poor and couldn’t afford to live in areas with good employment - economic discrimination
-1964 - CRA - banned racial discrimination in housing financed by the fed gov - this was ignored
-More fell below poverty line than in 1959
-Fair housing act was a week after MLKs death - passed to ease uproar in response
-Failure of northern crusade as they didnt end slums
-Discrimination with housing difficult to identify poverty in housing in the north than in south
-Firebombing of home - hansberries
What was achieved for public support for civil rights by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-NY & Washington were proof of successful equality
-Black people able to fill political positions in local, state and federal laws - required support as they would need to be voted in
-NAACP created support for blacks
-Media coverage - many listened to speeches
-Birmingham got a lot of publicity - pushed Kennedy
-I have a dream speech - 250,000 listeners
-AA’s in Montgomery support MBB
-Northern Crusade - 30,000 listening to MLK
What was NOT achieved for public support for civil rights by civil rights in regards to racial equality?
-Supporters were arrested, beaten and killed
-Supporters had homes and offices firebombed
-Informal segregation in the north
-Following legislation many people though that the issue of civil rights was dealt with
-People focus turned to other issues after MLK death
-While on northern crusade, king was attacked
-Backlash from white people due to riots in 1964
-700 white protesters hurled bricks, bottles and rocks at people in northern c
-MLK and MX assassinated
-1925 - KKK membership 3-8 million
Civil rights vs minority rights
Civil rights = AA’s
Minority rights = hispanics, Native Americans, homosexuals
What are minority rights? With definition? Examples?
- Hispanic Americans - individuals of Spanish descent e.g. Cesar Chavez, Reies Lopez Tijerina, Rudolf Gonzales, Jose Angel Gutierrez, The Brown Berets - fought for workers rights
- Native Americans - indigenous people of North America e.g. national congress of American Indians (NCAI) and the American Indian movement (AIM) - fought for land
- Homosexuals - individuals who are sexually attracted to people of ones own sex e.g. Gay Liberation front - fought for discrimination
Why did Hispanic Americans fight for equal rights?
Land
Workers rights
Discrimination
Deportation - operation wetback - largest deportation in history - deported Mexicans
Some key individuals or groups in the Hispanic American fight for equal rights?
-The Brown Berets was a young, militant organisation, set up in 1967 in East LA.
-Reies Lopez Tijerina organised protests about Mexican land rights in New Mexico - signed agreement with black panthers
-Jose Gutierrez led the La Raza Unida party - encouraged Hispanics to register to vote
-1962 Cesar Chavez sets up National Farm Workers Association (NFWA)
-1969 Young Lords Organisation set up - based on Black Panthers - provided breakfast clubs
-Rodolfo - Crusade for Justice - importance of racial identity - influenced a student walkout in LA in 1966 & the Young Citizens for Community Action (YCCA) who had contacts with the Black Power
-La Raza - famous Hispanic newspaper
-Barrios - Spanish speaking areas
Some key protests or events in the Hispanic American fight for equal rights?
-Deportation - operation wetback - 3.8 million
-1968 Chavez goes on a 25-day hunger fast; Robert Kennedy joins him for the end of the fast.
-1 June 1968 over 10,000 students walk out of mainly Mexican schools in East LA, protesting the conditions. 13 activists are arrested.
-1973 - 1,970 farm worker contracts are not renewed; widespread strikes, demonstrations, thousands are arrested, two are killed.
What were the gains of the Hispanic American fight for equal rights?
-1954 Supreme Court ruled that Hispanic people were equal citizens
-1975 Voting Rights Act extension provided language assistance to Hispanic groups
-1966 Congress’s Cuban American Adjustment Act said all Cubans who had lived in the USA for a year were permanent residents
What were the limitations of the Hispanic American fight for equal rights?
-The land issues raised by protestors have still not been settled.
-Local campaigning did improve schools and housing just as it did for black Americans, but, as for black Americans the level of change varied from place to place, as did the levels of enforcement of these legal rights.
Why did Native Americans fight for equal rights?
Self determination
Tribal homelands
Some key individuals or groups in the Native American fight for equal rights?
-American Indian Movement (AIM) set up in 1968
-Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) a part of the American federal government.
-National Congress of American Indians (NCAI)
-Red Power - influenced by Black Power
Some key protests or events in the Native American fight for equal rights?
-February 1973 - AIM occupies the village of Wounded Knee and declares independence as the Oglala Sioux Nation; unlike all other occupations, this time the government resorts to sending in US Marshalls and the state police - 2 dead - media leads to increased support
-Sit-ins, demonstrations and occupations
-Feb-July 1978 - The longest walk from San Francisco to Washington to protest about the forced removal of American Indians from their homelands and against Congress’ unwillingness to renegotiate treaties.
-Alcatraz - AIM leaders occupied in 1969
What were the gains of the Native American fight for equal rights?
-By 1980 Congress had passed 3 acts e.g. 1972 Indian Education Act and 1975 Indian Self-determination Act
-1971 - AIM membership 4,500
-1975 Voting Rights Act included Native Americans, and to provide language assistance when voting
-1978 Indian Child Welfare Act gave Native Americans more control over the adoption of Native American children.
-1971 the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act transferred 40 million acres of land and $462,500,000 to Native Alaskans
-President Nixon rejected termination
What were the limitations of the Native American fight for equal rights?
-Nixon’s administration did not reform the BIA, NOR DID Nixon renegotiate about Native American sacred sites.
-There was no overall solution to the land issues, and various states such as Hawaii in 1971, continued to evict Indians from land if the state wanted it for building or other use.
-Unemployment was 40% for NA’s in 70s and 80s
-90% of Native americans lived in substandard housing in 1970s and 80s
Why did gay rights fight for equal rights?
-A ‘Lavender Scare’ ran parallel to the ‘Red Scare’ to root out homosexuals; thousands lost their jobs
-Homosexuality was not decriminalised across the USA until 2003.
-In the 1950’s Congress said that homosexuality was a mental illness.
Some key individuals or groups in the gay rights fight for equal rights?
Gay liberation front
Some key protests or events in the gay rights fight for equal rights?
-Gay Rights Movement was formed after the incident at Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village, New York on June 28 1969.
-Gay Pride marches were held in several cities on 28 August 1970; the New York march alone had about 10,000 marchers.
-1977 Harvey Milk was elected to office in San Francisco. Milk was assassinated on 27 November 1979.
-1952 - declared mental illness
What were the gains of the gay rights fight for equal rights?
-Religious right opposed gay rights and gained support from conservatives, and support from some Republicans, including Ronald Reagan
-Between 1979-1981, the governor of California appointed four openly gay state judges.
-August 1980 - Democratic Party says it will not discriminate against gays and will campaign for their rights.
-1980 a gay teenage boy sued his high school for the right to bring a male date to the school prom. He won.
-1974 Kathy Kozachenko became the first openly gay candidate elected to public office
-1973 - homosexuality removed from America psychiatric associations list of diseases
What were the limitations of the gay rights fight for equal rights?
-Certain groups anti-gay, e.f. Ku Klux Klan - a lot of hostility to gays in rural ‘Bible Belt’
-21 May 1979 - Dan White, Milk’s assassin is given 7 years in prison (becuase milk was gay?) - over 5,000 protestors march on San Francisco’s city hall - riot breaks out; over 120 people injured.
-Anita Bryan - spokeswoman for the Citrus Commission in Florida, set up Save Our Children (SOC) - said gay integration meant ‘normal’ children would become corrupted - law was rejected
-Proposition 6 - A law proposed in California, in 1978 to ban gays, lesbians and supporters of their rights from working in state-funded schools in California.
-Gay support at federal level was slow coming.
