Unit 12 Exam Questions Flashcards
Using examples other than landfill, explain the advantages of different methods of solid waste management. [6 marks]
Recycling
Advantage: Recycling conserves natural resources by reprocessing materials such as paper, glass, plastic, and metals into new products, reducing the demand for raw materials. This helps in lowering energy consumption and decreasing pollution levels.
Example: Germany has one of the highest recycling rates in the world, with its Green Dot system encouraging consumers and businesses to recycle, significantly reducing waste sent to landfills.
Incineration (Waste-to-Energy)
Advantage: This method reduces waste volume significantly and generates energy. Modern incinerators are designed to capture harmful emissions, making them environmentally friendly while providing electricity and heat.
Example: Sweden has an advanced waste-to-energy program where over 50% of household waste is incinerated to generate electricity and district heating. The country even imports waste from neighboring countries to fuel its incineration plants.
Composting
Advantage: Organic waste such as food scraps and garden waste can be composted to create nutrient-rich soil, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and improving soil health. This method also lowers methane emissions compared to landfill disposal.
Example: In India, Bangalore’s municipal composting programs turn organic waste into compost, which is then sold to farmers, reducing both urban waste and reliance on synthetic fertilizers.
Waste Reduction and Reuse
Advantage: This method reduces waste generation at the source, lowering disposal costs and decreasing pollution. Encouraging businesses and individuals to minimize waste through reusable packaging, refill stations, and sustainable materials contributes to long-term environmental benefits.
Example: In the UK, supermarkets like Tesco and Sainsbury’s have introduced reusable packaging initiatives, reducing plastic waste by millions of tons annually.
Explain how recycling waste materials reduces environmental degradation. [6 marks]
Reduces Landfill Waste and Pollution
Explanation: Recycling reduces the volume of waste sent to landfills, thereby decreasing the release of harmful chemicals and methane gas, a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change.
Example: In Germany, one of the world’s leading recycling nations, only 1% of municipal waste ends up in landfills due to effective recycling programs.
Lowers Air Pollution from Waste Incineration
Explanation: By recycling materials such as plastic and paper, the need for incineration is reduced, which helps prevent the emission of harmful gases like carbon monoxide and dioxins into the atmosphere.
Example: Japan’s waste management system prioritizes recycling over incineration, improving air quality in cities like Tokyo and Osaka.
Conserves Natural Resources
Explanation: Recycling minimizes the need to extract and process raw materials, reducing deforestation, mining, and oil extraction, which all contribute to environmental degradation.
Example: In the United States, recycling aluminum saves 95% of the energy required to produce new aluminum from bauxite ore.
Saves Energy and Reduces Carbon Footprint
Explanation: Recycling requires significantly less energy than producing goods from raw materials, leading to lower greenhouse gas emissions and a reduced carbon footprint.
Example: Producing paper from recycled materials uses 60% less energy than making it from virgin wood pulp, helping mitigate climate change.
Protects Water Bodies from Pollution
Explanation: Recycling reduces the disposal of plastics and other waste into rivers and oceans, preventing marine pollution and protecting aquatic ecosystems.
Example: The European Union’s circular economy initiative aims to reduce ocean plastic pollution by promoting efficient recycling systems.
Encourages Sustainable Consumption and Production
Explanation: By creating demand for recycled products, industries shift towards more sustainable production methods, reducing environmental degradation associated with manufacturing.
Example: Sweden’s deposit return system for bottles and cans encourages recycling and reduces waste disposal.
Explain the ways that the Arctic environment may be at risk from increased use of its energy resources. [6 marks]
Disruption of Fragile Ecosystems
Explanation: Extracting oil and gas in the Arctic requires constructing drilling platforms, roads, and pipelines. These activities disturb delicate Arctic ecosystems, displacing wildlife and damaging vegetation.
Example: The Prudhoe Bay oil fields in Alaska have disrupted the migration routes of caribou herds, affecting indigenous communities that depend on them for food and livelihoods.
Oil Spills and Water Contamination
Explanation: Oil spills in Arctic waters are particularly devastating because cold temperatures slow down the natural breakdown of oil. Thick sea ice also makes cleanup operations difficult, leading to long-term contamination of marine habitats.
Example: The Exxon Valdez oil spill (1989) in Alaska spilled over 11 million gallons of crude oil, killing thousands of marine animals and affecting fisheries for decades.
Climate Change Acceleration
Explanation: The Arctic is already warming at twice the global average rate due to climate change. Extracting and burning fossil fuels from the region releases additional carbon dioxide (CO₂), exacerbating global warming and ice melt.
Example: The burning of Arctic fossil fuels contributes to the melting of the Greenland ice sheet, which has lost 3.8 trillion metric tons of ice since 1992, causing sea level rise worldwide.
Permafrost Thaw and Methane Release
Explanation: The Arctic contains large areas of permafrost (frozen soil). Drilling operations and infrastructure development generate heat, causing permafrost to thaw. When permafrost melts, it releases methane, a greenhouse gas 25 times more potent than CO₂, further accelerating climate change.
Example: In Siberia, Russia, permafrost thaw has led to the formation of massive craters, releasing stored methane and contributing to rising global temperatures.
Increased Shipping and Marine Pollution
Explanation: As Arctic ice melts, new shipping routes such as the Northern Sea Route become more accessible. Increased tanker traffic raises the risk of oil spills, noise pollution, and disturbance to marine mammals like whales and seals.
Example: The Bering Strait between Russia and Alaska has seen an increase in shipping, disrupting marine biodiversity and raising concerns over future oil spills.
Air Pollution and Acid Rain Formation
Explanation: Gas flaring, industrial activity, and increased transport release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which contribute to acid rain. Acid rain harms tundra vegetation and contaminates Arctic freshwater ecosystems.
Example: Norilsk, Russia, home to one of the world’s largest nickel and oil refineries, experiences severe acid rain, damaging local forests and lakes.
Explain two reasons for the changes in global electricity production from nuclear power between 1970 and 2018
- Public Concerns and Major Nuclear Accidents
Explanation: Several catastrophic nuclear accidents raised public fear over the safety of nuclear power, leading to stricter regulations, plant shutdowns, and a decline in nuclear expansion. Governments worldwide responded to these concerns by halting the construction of new nuclear plants and in some cases, decommissioning existing ones.
Examples:
The Chernobyl disaster (1986) in Ukraine caused widespread radioactive contamination, leading many European nations to reconsider their reliance on nuclear energy. Countries like Germany and Italy started reducing nuclear power production in response to safety concerns.
The Fukushima disaster (2011) in Japan led to a dramatic global drop in nuclear energy production. Japan shut down over 50 nuclear reactors, and other nations such as Switzerland and Belgium announced plans to phase out nuclear energy. - Growth in Renewable Energy and Changing Energy Policies
Explanation: The increasing affordability and efficiency of renewable energy sources, coupled with concerns over nuclear waste disposal, encouraged many governments to transition towards solar, wind, and hydropower. Additionally, global climate agreements like the Paris Agreement (2015) promoted clean energy alternatives over nuclear power.
Examples:
Germany’s Energiewende policy (Energy Transition) prioritized renewables over nuclear energy, leading to a significant decline in nuclear electricity production.
France, historically one of the largest nuclear energy producers, announced plans to reduce its nuclear dependency from 75% to 50% by 2035, shifting towards renewables.
Explain why the amount of electricity produced by HEP schemes may vary seasonally. [6 marks]
- Seasonal Variability in River Discharge
Explanation: HEP plants rely on rivers or reservoirs to generate electricity. Seasonal changes in precipitation and snowmelt influence river flow and the amount of water available to drive turbines. Higher river discharge during wet seasons leads to increased electricity generation, while dry seasons result in lower output.
Examples:
In Norway, HEP production is highest during spring and summer due to snowmelt from mountains, providing ample water supply for dams.
In India, the monsoon season (June to September) brings heavy rains, increasing river flow and maximizing HEP output. However, production declines in the dry season (winter months) when river levels drop. - Droughts and Low Rainfall Periods
Explanation: Droughts and below-average rainfall reduce water levels in rivers and reservoirs, leading to lower HEP production. Climate change has exacerbated water shortages, making HEP less reliable in some regions.
Examples:
California, USA: During the 2014–2017 drought, Lake Oroville’s water level fell so low that its HEP plant had to shut down.
Brazil, where over 60% of electricity comes from HEP, faces power shortages during El Niño years due to reduced rainfall affecting key dams. - Freezing of Water Sources in Cold Climates
Explanation: In colder regions, rivers and reservoirs may freeze in winter, limiting water flow and reducing power generation. Ice blocks turbines, requiring HEP stations to reduce output or shut down temporarily.
Examples:
Canada and Russia: HEP production declines in winter as frozen rivers restrict water movement, forcing reliance on other energy sources.
In Sweden, dams store water in winter to maximize production in spring and summer when melting snow increases river flow. - Changes in Seasonal Electricity Demand
Explanation: Electricity consumption fluctuates with the seasons, affecting how much HEP-generated power is required. In summer and winter, energy demand rises for cooling and heating, leading to adjustments in HEP production.
Examples:
China’s Three Gorges Dam, the largest HEP plant in the world, adjusts its output based on peak electricity demand in summer (for air conditioning) and winter (for heating).
In Scotland, HEP generation increases in winter to meet higher electricity demand for heating.
Explain three negative environmental impacts of electricity production by wind turbines. [6 marks]
- Visual and Noise Pollution
Explanation: Wind turbines are often placed in open landscapes, coastal regions, or mountain ridges, where their large size and rotating blades dominate the scenery. Many people consider them an eyesore, reducing the aesthetic value of natural environments. Additionally, wind turbines generate low-frequency noise and vibrations, which can disturb both human settlements and wildlife.
Example:
In Scotland, residents near the Whitelee Wind Farm, one of Europe’s largest wind farms, have complained about the visual intrusion and noise pollution affecting their quality of life.
In Denmark, offshore wind farms have faced opposition from coastal communities concerned about spoiling ocean views and tourism appeal. - Impact on Bird and Bat Populations
Explanation: Wind turbines pose a serious risk to flying animals, particularly birds and bats, which may collide with the rotating blades. Certain species, especially migratory birds and raptors, are highly vulnerable. Additionally, wind farm installations disrupt natural habitats, reducing biodiversity in some areas.
Example:
Altamont Pass Wind Farm (USA) has one of the highest bird mortality rates, particularly for golden eagles and hawks, leading to conservation concerns.
In Spain’s Tarifa Wind Farm, located near a major migration route, high bird deaths have been recorded, forcing changes in turbine positioning and blade speed adjustments. - Resource Extraction and Land Use Concerns
Explanation: Wind turbines require large amounts of materials such as steel, concrete, and rare earth minerals (neodymium, dysprosium), which contribute to habitat destruction and pollution during mining and manufacturing. Additionally, large-scale wind farms require significant land areas, sometimes leading to deforestation or competition with agriculture.
Example:
Brazil, where wind power is growing rapidly, has seen conflicts over land use between wind farms and indigenous communities, raising concerns about displacement.
Explain three ways countries attempt to achieve energy security. [6 marks]
- Diversifying the Energy Mix
Explanation: Relying on a single energy source makes a country vulnerable to supply disruptions and price volatility. Diversification involves using a mix of renewable (solar, wind, hydro, geothermal) and non-renewable (coal, oil, gas, nuclear) energy sources to create a more stable and resilient energy supply.
Example:
Germany’s Energiewende policy aims to transition from fossil fuels and nuclear power to a renewable energy mix, including wind, solar, and hydro, to reduce reliance on imported fossil fuels. - Strengthening Domestic Energy Production
Explanation: Countries with domestic energy resources prioritize their exploration and extraction to reduce dependency on imports. This includes developing offshore oil and gas fields, investing in nuclear energy, and expanding hydroelectric projects.
Example:
The United States’ shale gas boom (fracking) has made the country a net energy exporter, significantly reducing its reliance on Middle Eastern oil.
Norway uses its vast offshore oil and gas reserves in the North Sea to secure its domestic energy needs while exporting excess production. - Establishing International Energy Agreements
Explanation: Some nations lack sufficient domestic resources and secure energy through long-term trade agreements, cross-border pipelines, and strategic alliances. These agreements ensure stable access to energy imports even during global crises.
Example:
Japan, a country with limited fossil fuel resources, relies on long-term contracts for liquefied natural gas (LNG) imports from Australia and the Middle East.
The European Union’s energy policy focuses on diversifying gas imports by building pipelines from Norway, Russia, and North Africa, reducing reliance on a single supplier.
Using examples, explain how countries can increase their water supply. [6 marks]
- Construction of Large-Scale Water Storage and Transfer Projects
Explanation: Countries build dams, reservoirs, and water transfer systems to store and redistribute water from regions of surplus to areas facing water shortages. This allows for continuous water availability even during dry seasons.
Example:
China’s South-North Water Transfer Project moves billions of cubic meters of water from the Yangtze River in the south to drier northern regions, including Beijing.
Egypt’s Aswan High Dam stores Nile River water, providing irrigation and domestic water supply for millions. - Desalination of Seawater
Explanation: Countries with access to oceans can convert seawater into freshwater using desalination technology. This method is particularly useful for arid and water-scarce regions.
Example:
Saudi Arabia produces over 60% of its drinking water through desalination plants, ensuring water security despite its desert climate.
Israel’s Sorek Desalination Plant provides nearly 20% of the country’s domestic water supply. - Water Recycling and Wastewater Treatment
Explanation: Advanced water treatment facilities purify wastewater for reuse, reducing demand for freshwater sources. Recycled water can be used for agriculture, industry, and even drinking.
Example:
Singapore’s NEWater Program recycles wastewater into high-quality drinking water, reducing reliance on imports from Malaysia.
California, USA, treats wastewater for irrigation and groundwater recharge, ensuring sustainable water use.
Suggest why off-grid energy sources are useful for overcoming energy supply issues in LICs/MICs. [6 marks]
- Provides Electricity to Remote and Rural Areas
Explanation: Many LICs and MICs have large rural populations where extending the national grid is technically challenging and financially costly. Off-grid systems, such as solar home systems, mini-grids, and micro-hydro plants, allow communities to generate and manage their own electricity without relying on centralized grids.
Example:
Kenya’s ‘M-KOPA’ solar initiative provides affordable solar home systems to over 1 million households, offering reliable lighting and mobile charging.
Nepal’s micro-hydro projects supply clean electricity to remote mountain villages, reducing dependence on firewood and kerosene. - Reduces Dependence on Fossil Fuels and Enhances Energy Security
Explanation: Many LICs and MICs rely on imported fossil fuels, making energy supplies vulnerable to price fluctuations and geopolitical instability. Off-grid sources, such as solar, wind, and hydropower, utilize local renewable resources, ensuring sustainable and cost-effective energy production.
Example:
Bangladesh’s Solar Home Systems (SHS) project has installed over 4 million solar units, reducing reliance on diesel generators and kerosene lamps.
Rwanda’s off-grid solar farms provide electricity to villages, ensuring energy stability even during dry seasons when hydropower output declines. - Supports Economic Development and Improves Living Standards
Explanation: Reliable off-grid electricity enables businesses to operate longer hours, schools to adopt digital learning, and healthcare centers to function efficiently. This promotes economic growth, employment, and improved public services.
Example:
India’s solar microgrids in Uttar Pradesh have helped local businesses extend their operating hours, increasing profitability and job opportunities.
Nigeria’s rural solar mini-grids have enabled health clinics to refrigerate vaccines, improving public health outcomes.
Explain the problems of using renewable energy sources, other than carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. [7 marks]
- Unreliable and Intermittent Supply
Explanation: Many renewable energy sources depend on weather conditions, making them inconsistent. Solar power requires sunlight, wind power depends on wind speed, and hydroelectric power is affected by rainfall and seasonal variations. This intermittency makes renewables less reliable than fossil fuels, which provide continuous energy.
Example:
Germany’s wind energy sector struggles during low-wind periods, requiring backup power from coal and gas plants.
Solar energy production in the UK fluctuates due to cloud cover and shorter daylight hours in winter. - High Initial Costs and Investment Requirements
Explanation: The installation of renewable energy systems, such as solar farms, wind turbines, and hydroelectric dams, requires large upfront capital investments. Although operating costs are low, many developing countries struggle to fund these projects.
Example:
Offshore wind farms in Denmark require billions of dollars to construct and maintain, making them more expensive than traditional coal or gas plants.
Ethiopia’s Grand Renaissance Dam faces funding delays, slowing the expansion of its hydropower capacity. - Large Land and Resource Requirements
Explanation: Many renewable energy projects require significant land space, potentially leading to deforestation, habitat loss, and displacement of communities. Large-scale solar and wind farms also consume vast amounts of raw materials such as lithium, rare earth metals, and steel.
Example:
Brazil’s Amazon hydroelectric projects contribute to deforestation and disruption of indigenous lands. - Energy Storage and Grid Integration Challenges
Explanation: Since renewables are intermittent, energy must be stored for use when production is low. Battery storage technology is expensive and has environmental concerns due to lithium mining. Additionally, integrating renewable energy into existing power grids requires costly upgrades.
Example:
Tesla’s battery storage project in South Australia helps store excess solar energy, but high costs limit large-scale adoption.
California’s aging power grid struggles to handle the variability of solar and wind energy, leading to occasional blackouts. - Negative Environmental Impacts on Wildlife
Explanation: Despite being clean energy sources, wind turbines can kill birds and bats, and hydroelectric dams disrupt aquatic ecosystems. Improperly managed projects can cause unintended environmental damage.
Example:
Spain’s wind farms have high bird mortality rates, especially for migratory raptors like eagles.
Suggest two reasons why there are variations in the level of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions between countries. [6 marks]
- Level of Industrialization and Economic Development
Explanation: Countries with high levels of industrialization and economic growth tend to emit more CO₂ due to the widespread use of heavy industries, fossil fuel-based energy, and high consumption patterns. In contrast, developing countries with limited industrial activities have lower emissions. However, some middle-income countries experience rising emissions due to rapid industrial expansion.
Example:
Germany’s emissions have decreased due to deindustrialization and a shift toward a service-based economy and renewable energy. - Energy Sources and Consumption Patterns
Explanation: Countries relying on coal, oil, and natural gas for electricity and transport have higher CO₂ emissions, whereas nations investing in renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro, nuclear) tend to have lower emissions. Additionally, wealthier nations with higher energy consumption per capita generate more CO₂ compared to those with energy-efficient policies.
Example:
The United States has high per capita CO₂ emissions due to heavy reliance on fossil fuels for transport and industry, despite efforts to introduce renewable energy alternatives.
Norway has low CO₂ emissions because over 90% of its electricity comes from hydropower, reducing its reliance on fossil fuels.
Explain two factors which influence the source of energy used to generate electricity in HICs. [6 marks]
- Resource Availability and Energy Security
Explanation: Countries prioritize energy sources that are readily available within their borders to reduce reliance on imported fuels. This is important for energy security, ensuring a stable and independent energy supply. If a country has abundant fossil fuel reserves, it may continue using them, while others may invest in nuclear or renewables to avoid dependency on external sources.
Example:
Norway generates over 90% of its electricity from hydropower due to its abundant rivers and mountainous terrain, making it the most hydro-dependent nation in Europe.
France relies on nuclear power for over 70% of its electricity, reducing its dependence on imported fossil fuels and ensuring energy security. - Government Policies and Environmental Commitments
Explanation: Many HICs have strict environmental regulations and are committed to reducing carbon emissions under international agreements like the Paris Climate Agreement. These policies influence investment in renewable energy, often through subsidies, tax incentives, and carbon pricing. Governments also phase out coal power plants in favor of cleaner alternatives.
Example:
Germany’s Energiewende policy has prioritized wind and solar power, aiming to transition away from fossil fuels and nuclear energy.
The UK has drastically reduced coal usage and expanded offshore wind energy, aligning with its net-zero emissions target by 2050.
Suggest two reasons why the use of hydroelectric power (HEP) varies between countries. [6 marks]
- Physical Factors: Climate, River Systems, and Topography
Explanation: The feasibility of HEP depends on consistent water availability and elevation changes. Countries with large rivers, high annual rainfall, and steep terrain can generate more hydroelectric power. Conversely, arid regions, flat landscapes, or seasonal rivers limit HEP potential.
Example:
Norway generates over 90% of its electricity from HEP due to its abundant precipitation, steep valleys, and powerful rivers that allow for large dam constructions.
Saudi Arabia has almost no HEP potential because of its dry climate, lack of major rivers, and flat desert terrain, forcing reliance on oil and gas. - Economic and Technological Investment
Explanation: Building hydroelectric dams requires significant capital investment, infrastructure, and expertise. High-Income Countries (HICs) have the financial and technological resources to construct and maintain HEP plants, while Low-Income Countries (LICs) may struggle to fund large-scale projects without foreign investment.
Example:
China’s Three Gorges Dam, the world’s largest hydroelectric plant, was made possible through massive government investment and advanced engineering capabilities.
Ethiopia’s Grand Renaissance Dam has faced delays and financial constraints, despite its potential to transform the country’s energy sector.
Explain two methods used to improve air quality. [6 marks]
- Implementation of Low Emission Zones (LEZs) and Public Transport Investments
Explanation: Low Emission Zones (LEZs) are areas where highly polluting vehicles are either banned or charged a fee, encouraging the use of cleaner alternatives like electric vehicles, bicycles, and public transport. Governments also invest in bus rapid transit (BRT) systems, metro networks, and pedestrian-friendly infrastructure to reduce congestion and pollution.
Example:
London’s Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) has reduced nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) pollution by 44% since its implementation by restricting older, polluting vehicles.
Bogotá, Colombia, has developed an extensive bus rapid transit system (TransMilenio), which has cut traffic congestion and improved urban air quality. - Transition from Fossil Fuels to Renewable Energy
Explanation: Burning coal, oil, and gas for electricity and industrial activities releases carbon dioxide (CO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and particulate matter (PM2.5), leading to air pollution and climate change. By switching to renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydropower, and nuclear energy, emissions can be significantly reduced. Many governments offer incentives, subsidies, and tax breaks to promote clean energy adoption.
Example:
Sweden has reduced its reliance on fossil fuels, with over 54% of its electricity coming from renewable sources, improving air quality and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
China has invested in the world’s largest solar farms, cutting coal dependency and lowering smog levels in major cities like Beijing and Shanghai.
Explain two ways in which environments at risk can be protected. [6 marks]
- Establishing Protected Areas and Conservation Reserves
Explanation: Governments and conservation organizations designate national parks, marine reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries to limit destructive human activities such as logging, mining, and overfishing. These areas are legally protected, ensuring habitat conservation and biodiversity preservation. Protected areas often include restrictions on hunting, tourism, and industrial activities, allowing ecosystems to recover naturally.
Example:
The Amazon Rainforest is protected by conservation zones in Brazil, where deforestation restrictions and satellite monitoring help curb illegal logging.
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia has regulations that limit fishing, boating, and industrial waste dumping, preventing coral reef degradation. - Environmental Laws and Pollution Control Policies
Explanation: Many governments enforce strict environmental laws to reduce air, water, and land pollution. Regulations include limits on carbon emissions, restrictions on harmful pesticides, and waste disposal guidelines for industries. Companies that violate these regulations often face fines and legal action. Implementing renewable energy policies also reduces reliance on fossil fuels, helping lower greenhouse gas emissions.
Example:
The Clean Air Act in the United States has significantly reduced air pollution by regulating emissions from power plants and vehicles.
China’s environmental policies have shut down high-pollution factories and expanded green energy programs, helping reduce urban air pollution.
Explain two constraints on improving the quality of degraded environments. [6 marks]
- Economic Constraints: Lack of Funding and Investment
Explanation: Environmental restoration requires significant financial investment for activities such as reforestation, pollution control, and habitat restoration. Many governments, particularly in low-income countries (LICs), struggle to allocate sufficient funds for environmental projects due to competing priorities such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure. Furthermore, private investors may be reluctant to fund projects that do not yield immediate profits.
Example:
The Great Green Wall project in Africa, aimed at reversing desertification in the Sahel region, has faced delays due to insufficient financial support and political instability in participating countries.
The Niger Delta in Nigeria, which suffers from severe oil pollution, lacks adequate funding for clean-up efforts, leaving local communities exposed to toxic environments. - Social and Political Barriers: Weak Governance and Lack of Public Awareness
Explanation: Environmental policies and restoration programs often fail due to weak governance, lack of law enforcement, and political corruption. Many governments prioritize economic growth over environmental protection, allowing deforestation, mining, and industrial pollution to continue unchecked. Additionally, local communities may lack awareness of the importance of conservation or may not have the resources to adopt sustainable practices.
Example:
Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest continues despite conservation efforts, largely due to weak enforcement of environmental laws and illegal logging operations.
Indonesia’s peatland fires, which contribute to severe air pollution and habitat destruction, persist because small-scale farmers continue using slash-and-burn agriculture, unaware of its long-term consequences.
Suggest reasons why many people do not have access to safe water. [6 marks]
- Economic and Infrastructure Constraints
Explanation: Many low-income countries (LICs) and middle-income countries (MICs) struggle to invest in water supply infrastructure such as wells, pipelines, and water treatment plants. Limited government budgets and high costs of construction and maintenance prevent widespread access to safe water. Additionally, rural and remote communities are often neglected as governments prioritize urban areas for development.
Example:
Sub-Saharan Africa faces severe water shortages due to insufficient investment in water infrastructure and maintenance, with many people relying on unsafe water sources.
India’s rural areas lack proper water supply systems, forcing people to depend on untreated groundwater, which is often contaminated with arsenic and fluoride. - Water Pollution and Climate Change
Explanation: Pollution from industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and poor sanitation contaminates water sources, making them unsafe for drinking. Additionally, climate change causes droughts and changes in rainfall patterns, reducing freshwater availability and making it harder to access clean water. Rising temperatures also increase evaporation rates, worsening water scarcity in already dry regions.
Example:
Bangladesh faces widespread groundwater contamination from arsenic, affecting millions who rely on tube wells for drinking water.
California, USA, experiences severe water shortages due to prolonged droughts linked to climate change, affecting both urban and agricultural water supply.
Suggest reasons why there may be an increase in the population without basic drinking water services in a region. [6 marks]
- Rapid Population Growth and Urbanization
Explanation: Many developing countries, particularly in low-income countries (LICs) and middle-income countries (MICs), experience high population growth and rapid urbanization. This puts immense pressure on water supply infrastructure, which often cannot expand quickly enough to meet demand. As a result, new settlements, particularly informal settlements or slums, lack piped water connections and sanitation services. Additionally, local governments may lack the financial resources to invest in expanding water infrastructure.
Example:
Sub-Saharan Africa has experienced significant urban population growth, but many cities have failed to expand water supply networks, forcing residents to rely on contaminated water sources such as rivers and unprotected wells.
India’s megacities, such as Delhi and Mumbai, have large informal settlements where millions depend on unsafe groundwater or tanker deliveries, increasing health risks. - Climate Change and Water Scarcity
Explanation: Droughts, changing rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events have reduced freshwater availability in many regions. Prolonged droughts dry up rivers and groundwater sources, leading to a decline in access to safe drinking water. Rising temperatures increase evaporation rates, further exacerbating water shortages. Additionally, flooding can contaminate existing water supplies with sewage and pollutants, making water unsafe for consumption.
Example:
East Africa has faced severe droughts, particularly in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Somalia, leading to widespread water shortages and reliance on unsafe sources.
California, USA, has experienced prolonged droughts, reducing groundwater reserves and leading to water rationing in some areas.
Explain two factors which lead to the degradation of rural environments. [6 marks]
- Unsustainable Agricultural Practices
Explanation: Many rural areas rely on agriculture for economic survival, but unsustainable farming methods such as overgrazing, overcultivation, excessive use of chemical fertilizers, and deforestation contribute to soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and desertification. These practices gradually reduce land productivity, forcing farmers to expand into previously untouched areas, leading to further degradation.
Example:
The Sahel region in Africa suffers from severe desertification due to overgrazing by livestock and poor irrigation techniques, which strip the soil of nutrients and moisture.
Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest for cattle ranching and soybean farming has led to soil erosion, reduced water retention, and habitat destruction, making land unsuitable for long-term use. - Climate Change and Natural Disasters
Explanation: Shifts in rainfall patterns, increased temperatures, and extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and storms accelerate land degradation. Droughts reduce water availability for crops and livestock, while floods erode soil and wash away fertile land. Rising global temperatures also increase desertification, making it harder for communities to sustain farming and livelihoods.
Example:
Australia’s extreme droughts have led to severe soil salinization and declining agricultural yields, making farming increasingly difficult.
Pakistan has experienced worsening floods, which wash away fertile topsoil, pollute freshwater sources, and disrupt rural communities, increasing vulnerability to future disasters.
Explain two causes of water pollution. [6 marks]
- Industrial and Agricultural Runoff
Explanation: Factories, mines, and farms release toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and pesticides into rivers, lakes, and oceans. Agricultural runoff, in particular, carries fertilizers and pesticides into water bodies, leading to eutrophication—a process where excess nutrients cause algal blooms that deplete oxygen levels, killing aquatic life. Similarly, industrial waste from factories can introduce hazardous substances such as mercury, lead, and oil spills, further contaminating water supplies.
Example:
The Ganges River in India is heavily polluted due to untreated industrial waste and agricultural runoff, affecting millions who rely on it for drinking water.
The Gulf of Mexico’s ‘Dead Zone’ is caused by fertilizer runoff from Midwestern farms in the U.S., leading to low-oxygen conditions that kill fish and marine life. - Poor Waste Management and Sewage Disposal
Explanation: Many developing countries lack proper sewage treatment facilities, leading to the direct discharge of human waste, plastic debris, and toxic chemicals into nearby water bodies. This introduces harmful bacteria, viruses, and toxins, increasing the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid. In coastal areas, plastic waste and untreated sewage harm marine life, while in urban regions, uncollected garbage often clogs drainage systems, worsening floods and water contamination.
Example:
Jakarta, Indonesia, faces severe water pollution due to unregulated waste dumping and untreated sewage, leading to serious health risks.
