Unit 12 - Essays - Water UPDATED Flashcards
Evaluate the role of economic factors in causing water pollution in LICs/MICs.
Paragraph 1: Agriculture as an economic driver
Explain agriculture’s importance to Mali’s economy (around 33% GDP, employing about 80% population).
Explain economic drive for higher productivity/profit (e.g., cotton farming in Sikasso region).
Detailed evidence:
Excessive use of chemical fertilizers/pesticides.
Nitrate pollution: WHO guidelines exceeded by 300% in Sikasso region.
Seasonal variation: Peak chemical pollution during planting and harvest seasons.
Briefly link spatial variation: mostly rural/agricultural regions.
Paragraph 2: Industrial development
Introduce small-scale industries in Mali (textiles, tanneries, mining around urban centers).
Explain economic motivation: maximising profits, low-cost operations, lack of investment in wastewater treatment.
Detailed evidence:
Over 90% untreated industrial wastewater in Bamako discharged into Niger River.
Resulting heavy metal contamination and high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
Compare briefly with larger-scale MIC examples (India’s industrial rivers like Ganges/Yamuna).
Highlight spatial concentration (urban industrial clusters) and scale (smaller in Mali, larger in MICs).
Paragraph 3: Urbanisation and economic migration
Outline rural-to-urban migration driven by economic opportunities.
Provide detailed statistics:
Bamako population growth from 658,000 (1990) to approx. 2.7 million today.
Infrastructure unable to cope economically (lack of proper sanitation for 60% residents).
Evidence of resulting pollution:
Raw sewage entering Niger River directly due to insufficient sanitation.
Highlight spatial variation (urban areas vs rural areas) and temporal aspects (accelerating pollution over recent decades).
Paragraph 4: Resource extraction (Mining activities)
Outline economic significance of mining in Mali (gold contributes ~6.5% GDP).
Detailed description of artisanal/small-scale mining practices:
Use of mercury and cyanide for gold extraction.
Evidence: mercury contamination 100x WHO safe limits around Kayes and Sikasso mining regions.
Economic driver: Profit motive encourages ignoring environmental protections.
Temporal variation: pollution spikes when gold prices rise, encouraging mining expansions.
Paragraph 5: Poverty and lack of economic resources
Explain Mali’s economic situation (GDP per capita around US$890/year).
Link economic scarcity directly to inability to invest in clean water infrastructure and environmental protection.
Provide detailed statistics:
Less than 40% rural Malians access safe drinking water; even fewer adequate sanitation.
Limited government capacity to enforce environmental laws due to economic constraints.
Resulting widespread reliance on polluted water sources due to poverty.
Spatial variation: Rural areas disproportionately affected due to lack of economic resources.
Brief mention of other factors (showing balanced evaluation)
Explain briefly (without dominating economic focus):
Political factors: governance effectiveness.
Social factors: public education and awareness.
Institutional capacity: enforcement of laws.
Brief example contrasting Mali with Rwanda (successful pollution reduction due to better governance and education despite similar economic challenges).
Conclusion
Restate briefly that economic factors (agriculture, industry, urbanisation, mining, poverty) strongly drive water pollution, clearly demonstrated through Mali.
Highlight that pollution varies spatially (urban vs rural), temporally (seasonal farming/mining activities), and by scale.
Conclude clearly: Economic factors are central, but effective solutions require integrating social, political, and institutional improvements.
‘For many countries, water quality is more of an issue than water supply.’ With reference to one or more examples, how far do you agree?
Paragraph 1: Mali – A Low-Income Country Facing Severe Water Quality Problems
Point: Mali has both water scarcity and water quality issues, but quality is the bigger challenge because of contamination and health risks.
Spatial Variation:
The north of Mali is extremely dry (250–500mm rainfall per year), while the south has more rainfall (1,100mm per year).
However, even where water is available, it is often polluted, making quality the more significant issue.
Evidence & Statistics:
Only 77% of Mali’s population has access to improved drinking water (UNICEF).
In rural areas, this drops to 64%.
Cholera and diarrhea cause 20% of child deaths under five (WHO).
Temporal Variation:
Climate change is causing longer droughts, leading people to rely on contaminated water sources.
Over time, groundwater sources are also becoming more polluted due to overuse and poor sanitation.
Judgment:
While Mali lacks water in many areas, contaminated water causes more immediate dangers to health.
Water quality is a greater issue than supply because even when water is available, it is often unsafe.
Paragraph 2: India – Industrial and Agricultural Pollution as the Main Crisis
Point: India has plenty of water resources, but pollution has made much of it unusable, making quality a more serious problem than supply.
Spatial Variation:
Rivers like the Ganges, which support 400 million people, are highly polluted.
Industrial cities like Delhi and Kanpur have high levels of heavy metal pollution.
Agricultural states like Punjab and Haryana suffer from groundwater contamination due to fertilizers.
Evidence & Statistics:
70% of India’s surface water is polluted (NITI Aayog, 2018).
230 billion cubic meters of groundwater are extracted annually – the highest in the world.
60% of India’s districts have unsafe nitrate levels in water, leading to health problems like blue baby syndrome.
Temporal Variation:
Rapid industrialization since the 1990s has worsened pollution.
Water quality continues to deteriorate over time as pollution increases.
Judgment:
Water supply is not India’s main issue – pollution is destroying the water that is available.
Since both urban and rural areas face contamination, water quality is a more widespread and urgent issue.
Paragraph 3: California – A High-Income Example of Water Scarcity and Quality Issues
Point: California’s biggest challenge is water scarcity, but water quality is an increasing issue, especially for rural and low-income communities.
Spatial Variation:
Droughts affect the whole state, but farming areas like the Central Valley suffer from both water shortages and pollution.
Urban areas like Los Angeles and San Diego also have issues with old pipes causing lead contamination.
Evidence & Statistics:
Between 2020 and 2022, California had its driest three-year period in 1,200 years (NOAA).
Over 250,000 people in California have unsafe drinking water due to nitrates.
Lead contamination in older urban areas disproportionately affects low-income households.
Temporal Variation:
Climate change is making droughts worse over time.
As water supply shrinks, contamination in the remaining water becomes more concentrated, worsening quality.
Judgment:
California’s main problem is water supply, but water quality issues are growing.
For wealthier areas, supply is a bigger issue, but for poorer areas, water quality is the main crisis.
Paragraph 4: The Link Between Water Supply and Quality
Point: Water supply and quality are interconnected, and worsening supply often leads to worse quality.
In Mali:
When water runs out, people use unsafe sources, leading to disease outbreaks.
In India:
Over-extraction of groundwater leads to more pollution, as remaining water becomes highly contaminated.
In California:
Droughts concentrate pollutants, making the available water even less safe.
Temporal Perspective:
Climate change is worsening both supply and quality worldwide.
Judgment:
While both are problems, water quality tends to have more direct consequences on health, making it the bigger challenge in most cases.
Paragraph 5: Scale and Severity of Impact
Point: Water quality is often a bigger problem than supply because it affects more people and has more severe consequences.
Global Scale Comparison:
LICs like Mali: Waterborne diseases cause high death rates.
MICs like India: Millions of people exposed to unsafe water daily.
HICs like California: Poorer communities suffer from contamination more than wealthier ones.
Judgment:
Even in places with enough water, contaminated water makes it unusable.
The health and economic consequences of poor water quality make it a bigger challenge than supply in many countries.
Conclusion
Restate argument – While both water supply and quality are critical, water quality is often the bigger issue.
Key reason – Even in places with enough water, contamination makes it unsafe to drink, leading to serious health problems.
Final judgment – In most cases, ensuring clean water is more urgent than simply having enough water.
