unit 12

Question 1

what are the four components of a problem?

Answer 1

1. initial state
2. goal state
3. rules and constraints
4. obstacles

Question 2

describe initial state.

Answer 2

state at beginning of problem

Question 3

describe goal state.

Answer 3

solution to the problem

Question 4

describe rules and constraints

Answer 4

what you can and cannot do

Question 5

describe obstacles.

Answer 5

must be overcome to achieve goal

Question 6

explain the difference between a well-defined and an ill-defined problem

Answer 6

well-defined problem: clear and structured, components are well understood, when it is solved, you will know it is solved

ill-defined problem: fuzzy and abstract, components not well understood, harder to tell when a solution is reached

Question 7

explain the difference between a routine problem and a non-routine problem.

Answer 7

routine problem: can be solved by applying well-practices procedures , components of problem are familiar

non-routine problem: components are not familiar, first-time problems are non-routine but many can become routine with practice

Question 8

what are some challenges faced by researchers who study problem solving?

Answer 8

complex vs. simple; brief vs. time-consuming; real-world problems vs. puzzles/brain teasers; etc.

problems can be time-consuming to solve
how to observe or measure problem-solving

Question 9

in what ways have verbal reports helped researchers understand problem-solving?

Answer 9

verbal reports generated by problem solvers as they think through the problems out loud, reveals strategies, reasoning, and decision-making steps.

Question 10

in what ways are verbal reports limited?

Answer 10

can’t assess the accuracy of a verbal report
thinking out loud may interfere or change the thought process being described

Question 11

describe transformation problems.

Answer 11

must find the appropriate steps or strategies to move from an initial state to a given goal state
ex. tower of hanoi

Question 12

describe arrangement problems.

Answer 12

all problems elements presented, must figure out how to arrange them
ex: anagrams, seating chart, scheduling

Question 13

describe induction problems.

Answer 13

given a series of exemplars or instances and must figure out the pattern or rule that relates the instances
ex: 1 2 3 5 8 13

Question 14

describe deduction problems.

Answer 14

premises or conditions are given, and the solver must determine whether a solution/conclusion fits

ex:
- all Xs are Ys
-Z is not a Y
There, Z is not an X (is that a correct conclusion?)

Question 15

describe divergent problems.

Answer 15

must generate as many solutions as possible
ex: describes possible uses for a shovel, brainstorm many possible career paths

Question 16

what is creativity?

Answer 16

ability to come up with novel and appropriate solutions

Question 17

describe the behaviorist approaches to study problem solving

Answer 17

focuses on observable behaviors and reinforcement in learning problem-solving

Question 18

describe the gestalt behaviorist approach to study problem solving

Answer 18

emphasizes holistic perception and restructing problems to gain insight

Question 19

describe the information processing approach to study problem solving.

Answer 19

views problem-solving as a step-by-step process, like computer algorithms

Question 20

how important is it for a person to form an accurate representation of the problem at hand?

Answer 20

very crucial, correct solution is dependent on representation
- failure in representation = no solution

Question 21

what is “mental set”? when might it be good? when might it be bad?

Answer 21

mental set: tendency to rely on habits and procedures used in the past
good: speeds up problem-solving when the same strategy is effective
bad: prevents seeing new or better solutions (getting stuck on a past method that does not work)

Question 22

what is “functional fixedness”? Give an example of how a person might perceive an object in a functionally fixed way.

Answer 22

functional fixedness: tendency to view objects in a narrow and fixed way, based on their typical function
Ex: seeing a paperclip only as a tool for holding papers and not as a makeshift hook.

Question 23

describe how a person might use an algorithm to solve a problem. pros and cons?

Answer 23

algorithm: a set of rules can be applied systematically to solve certain types of problems

pros: guarantees correct answer (if applied correctly)
cons: may not always be fastest or easiest approach: algorithms not always available/feasible for some problem types

Question 24

describe how a person might use a heuristic to solve a problem. pros and cons?

Answer 24

heuristics: general strategies, or “rule of thumb,” that can be applied to some types of problems

pros: efficiency
cons: does not guarantee correct solution

Question 25

give an example of a problem-solving heuristic.

Answer 25

means-end analysis: breaking problems into subgoals, solving each to reduce the difference between the current and goal states

Question 26

in problem-solving, what is meant by insight? consider insight problems vs. non-insight problems: which type gives the feeling of gradual progress toward a solution? which type gives the feeling of little progress until the “Aha!” moment is reached?

Answer 26

insight: a sudden realization of a solution (“Aha!” moment)
insight problems: little progress until the solution is suddenly clear (riddles)
non-insight problems: gradual progress toward a solution (solving a math problem)

insight gives the Aha! moment

Question 27

what is meant by incubation? why does taking a break from a problem sometimes lead to a solution?

Answer 27

incubation: productive inactivity
- clears your mind of interfering info
- taking a break can help you get away from conditions/cues that produce failure, finding new conditions/cues that help

Question 28

what is meant by expertise? is it primarily a result of natural talent or extensive experience? does expertise in one domain imply expertise in other domains?

Answer 28

expertise: exceptional knowledge and/or performance in some specific problem domain

it is primarily achieved through repeated practice and experience over time to acquire an extensive body of knowledge and well-learned set of skills

*expertise in one domain does not guarantee expertise in other domains