Unit 10 - Language And The Self

Question 1

Self

Answer 1

An individual separate existence from other people

Question 2

Early childhood development

Answer 2

The physical/intellectual/emotional and social development which takes place from birth to primary school

Question 3

Self-identity

Answer 3

Indiviudals awareness of their own unique characteristics in the social groups around them

Question 4

Sense of self development

Answer 4

No one is born with a sense of self; only during early childhood development that an identity os formed

~> NNew born babies do not respond as they are not aware that others are sseperate from the m
~> 2 months they begin responding - changing from passive to active behaviour
~> Only later on is a self-identity established

Question 5

Cognitive development

Answer 5

Is about the development of info processing skills in the brain - ie: processing info/memory/perception/learning language.
—> Cognitive and motor development are set to be linked

~> Self-identity plays a vital part in how we interact with others throughout life - different elements make up our sense of self

Question 6

Idiolect

Answer 6

The distinctive pattern of indivuals speech

Question 7

Sociolect

Answer 7

The style of speech shared by people in a particular region/social group

Question 8

Influence of language on self-identity

Answer 8

• Voice is an instantly recognisable - individual speech pattern is your idiolect
• Form of language you speak -geography/group- is your sociolect
• Gender/age/education/ ect. Link to your self-identity. Some parts of your life are more significant at 🕑

Question 9

Conversational maxims

Answer 9

Paul Grice’s maxims
• Maxim of quantity : contributions should be as informative as necessary ; they should not be more informative than what is necessary
• Maxim of relation : be relevant
• Maxim of quality : do not say what you believe to be false ; do not speak without adequate evidence
• Maxim of manner : avoid obscurity of expression ; avoid ambiguity ; be brief/no rambling ; be orderly

Question 10

Cooperative principle

Answer 10

The principle of speakers usually mean what they say and hearers accept this in trying to work out the meaning

Question 11

Conversational face

Answer 11

Image that a person has of themselves as a conversationalist

Question 12

Face-threatening acts

Answer 12

Acts/words which appear to threaten the self esteem of a speaker in conversation

Question 13

Positive politeness

Answer 13

Friendly strategies to make the participant feel good about themselves -compliments/nicknames/mutaually understood jargon

Question 14

Negative politeness

Answer 14

Strategies intended to avoid giving offence/imposing on others by showing respect - ie: ‘would you mind’ ; ‘I hope you don’t mind’

Question 15

Adversative conjunction

Answer 15

A connecting word which starts an idea opposing the one which has just been stated - ie: ‘but’ ; ‘however’

Question 16

Cognitive skills

Answer 16

Brain skills which are needed to perform any mental/physical task. Concerned with the mechanisms of carrying out these tasks rather than with any knowledge

Question 17

Perception

Answer 17

Recognition and interpretation through the senses

Question 18

Attention

Answer 18

Being able to concentrate on a particular mental/physical task and sustaining that concentration over other distractions in the environment

Question 19

Memory

Answer 19

The storage and retrieval of info in the brain
—> divided into short term - actively retain a small amount of info
—> and long term - info stored for an indefinite period of time + can be retrieved

Question 20

Motor skill

Answer 20

Ability to move the body and manipulate objects

Question 21

Language

Answer 21

The skill which changes sounds into words to be spoken

Question 22

Visual and special processing

Answer 22

Ability to understand relationships between objects and visualise images and ideas inn the imagination

Question 23

Behaviourism

Answer 23

Acquisition of the sense of self takes place alongside the acquisition of language.

~> All thoughts and emotions are explained in terms of encouraging desired behaviour
~> BF Skinner

Question 24

Empiricism

Answer 24

States that sense of self-identity + knowledge of language come through senses and experiences, and not through reasoning/logical argument
~> Humans are born with a clean slate mentally therefore explaining why our experiences shape us

Question 25

Innatism

Answer 25

There is something special about the human brain which enables it to master the complexities of language
~> Goes against the ‘blank slate’ theory
~> Follows nth thought that ideas were in the mind at birth and given by a supreme being

Question 26

Nativism

Answer 26

Based on innatism -individual is born with genetic abilities which include the development of language
~> Naom Chomsky - LAD enables the initial development of language which interacts with an individuals childhood experiences within a society to produce both langue/sense of self

Question 27

Linguistic determinism

Answer 27

Idea that the structure of a language determines the thought processes of its speakers

Question 28

Linguistic reflectionism

Answer 28

Idea that language reflects the thoughts/ideas of a culture
~> linguistic determinism is the opposing idea

Question 29

Linguistic relativity

Answer 29

Idea that the structure of a language affects a persons view of the world either very directly - as in linguistic determinism - or as a much more indirect/weaker influence

Question 30

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Answer 30

Hypothesis supports the view that the words/grammar of a language directly shape the thoughts of its speakers
~> ie: eng has one word for snow, Inuit tribes have 3 - Inuit people think more subtlety about snow

• Linguistic determinism
- Language defines our thinking
- Society is confined by its language
- Words directly frame our thoughts

• Linguistic reflectionismn
- Language reflects the thoughts of its speakers
- Language influences peoples view on the world but doesn’t determine it

• Linguistic relativity
- Structure of a language doesn’t affect the speakers world

Criticism
~ Whorf gave examples of language differences relating to concepts of time, space and lifestyle
Compared Eng with Native American Indian languages. Believed to not think through terms of tenses (past/present/future) - ultimately flawed as they did have an understanding of time ( using future and non-future tenses)

~ Boas-Jakobson principle (1950s)
Sapir-Whorf - lannguage acts as a prison; restricting reasoning/understanding abilities
Boas-Jakobson theory - every thought can be expressed in every language, but the languages differ in the required information

Question 31

Universalism

Answer 31

Language is a reflection of human thoughts and that all languages are similar with shared patterns/concepts
~. All humans have the same cognitive processes - memory + perception - which are reflected in every language, so that ideas can easily translated between langauges

Question 32

Language and social equality

Answer 32

• Gender : traditional words for employment imply that only men can do them (ie: fireman, policeman)
- they have now become neutral (ie: firefighter)

• Comedy : certain types are not acceptable (ie:personnnal/derogatory comments at the expense of others physical appearance

• Ethnicity : politically correct language combats many unpleasant racist slurs/insults
- now become illegal in most countries

• Workplace changes : ⬆️ no of women in senior roles throughout the world
- reducing stereotypes ~ boss (he) ; PA (she)

• Age : Illegal to discriminate in terms of age
- specifically older women subject to ageist discrimination
- change attitudes about ageing, making aware of reinforcing stereotypes

• Disability : Laws against discrimination aim to remove belief of being defined by their disability
- use o ‘handicap’ rather than disabled

• Religious beliefs

Question 33

Stereotype

Answer 33

A very generalised opinion/idea about a type of person/group . It is a simplified and biased image, often produces negative feelings an out those concerned

Question 34

Political correctness

Answer 34

Avoiding offence to any group of people who may be seen to be at a disadvantage because of their race/gender/disability/ect.

~> Intentions of treating people equally
- criticised for being overly sensitive

Question 35

Convergence

Answer 35

When we make our language style similar to those speakers around us
~> Language used by group member can have an influence on an individuals sense of self - aim to be like the majority of the group
~> Giles - we don’t like appearing different from those we spend time with; therefore accommodating/changing

Question 36

Divergence

Answer 36

When we make our lannguage more distinctly different from those speakers around us

Question 37

Speech communities

Answer 37

Groups of people who use the same variety of language and have a shared understanding of its style
~> ie: sociolect/accent/lexis/syntax

Question 38

Linguistic prestige

Answer 38

The degree of respect and value given to a particular style of language by a speech community

New York - William Labour 1966
~> Pronunciation of consonant ‘r’ after a vowel, which produces a distinct sound (often heard in Scotland/Ireland/North America). This was noted as being prestige.
~> Lower/middle workinng class were likely to channge the way they spoke to reflect the ‘right’ way of speaking

Norwich, UK -Peter Trudgill 1974
~> Investigated a similar indicator of language and social class - working class women were more aware of the more prestige forms of pronunciation

Great British Class survey, 2011
~> BBC conducted survey -upper/middle/working class satirised in shows are outdated ; however clear divisions still exist based on wealth/access to technical knowledge

Restricted and elaborated codes - Basil Bernstein 1971
~> Relates to language skills of early years of primary school children in unit 8.5

Question 39

Standard and non-standard English

Answer 39

Prescriptivist view:
~ Influential in earlier times as reinforced through grammar books/dictionaries which stated rules

Context for language views:
1~ Formal - Standard English is followed inn both speech and written forms
2~ Colloquial/casual - Everyday language used in both speech and written form
3~ Slang/nonstandard - Basic/informal variety of english. Found more in speech rather than in writing
4~ Frozen - Unchanging language full of archaisms

Question 40

Slang

Answer 40

May not be considered to be polite, becomes outdated quickly, but usually spreads rapidly (greatly aided through global links).

~> Slang can be an identity marker; marking its users as a group who wish to be set apart from other non-users
- When slang becomes wide spread amongst populations it ceases to be slang and becomes part of the language

Question 41

Jargon

Answer 41

Form of nonstandard englsih as its not apart of main-stream use. Usually relates to specialist groups/professionals

Question 42

Patois

Answer 42

Particular variety of speech used by a group which may be regarded as having low status

Question 43

Teenage language

Answer 43

• Early adopters of pop culture; innnovators of language
• Information needs to be communicated in digital age of social network - blurs the line between spoken and written lannguage
• May be reducing lexis
• Teenage language acquisition is not about learning languages but about adapting/using lannguage in adult situations

Question 44

Code switch

Answer 44

Switching between different varieties/registers of language

Question 45

Language and gender

Answer 45

• 1963 US law instated ruling equal pay for equal work
• Traditionally the male maxim dominates in writing/ has become the norm - mankind

Question 46

Differences in male and female language

Answer 46

Female
• Stereotype - passive listeners; lightweight discourse/gossip
• Traditionally brought up to be more compliant than boys - sporty girls = tomboys
• A most universally responsible for child-rearing - want to be display model behaviour - including speech

Male
• Stereotype - weighty conversation/ serious debate and men interrupt/hold conversational floors
• Perceived dominance of males in mixed communities has become concerning in educational institutions
• Equality of races/genders has lended itself to outdating male dominance••

Santa Barbara campus of university of California case study:
• White, middle class and under 35
• 11/31 between men and women - 46 interruptions M; 2 interruptions F

Question 47

Computer mediated communication

Answer 47

Commnnunication between people by means of electronic devices - ie: email/text

Question 48

Male and female conversation - Zimmern and West 1970

Answer 48

Gossip is an evolutionary strategy to forge friendships/keep up to date, providing adavntages in an uncertain world - therefor of equal advantage to to men and women
~> Found that men gossip just as much as women
~> Women no less likely to discuss ‘weighty’ topics
~> When gossiping men tend to talk more about themselves

Characteristics:
• Men < to give supportive feedback
• Women conversationally cooperative, giving more feedback etc.
• Women tend to do the ‘hard work’ keep conversation going by asking questions/etc. - this is the politeness principle; uses ‘please/thanks’
• Lexical choices are evaluated more by women + increased use of adverbs
• Mens language considered coarser - women use more standard forms of english

Question 49

Genderlect theory

Answer 49

Deborah Tannen - linked to status/roles of participants in the western society

Styles of conversation - M : F
• status : support
• independence : intimacy
• advice : understanding
• info : feelings
• orders : proposals
• conflict : compromise

~> Mens convos -giving/receiving info - want to be seen to act independently/put across status/security
- Often assertive with no strategies to avoid conflict

~> Women convos - building/reinforcing relationships + negotiating tactics/compromising/polite forms of discourse

More recent studies show - females using nonstandard english + assertiveness associated with men

Question 50

Standpoint theory

Answer 50

Women and their languages should be practised from the viewpoint of women. Suggests that in most societies, womens lives/experiences are different of men and have different knowledge - may not be given equal status to men

~> Criticism : womens lives may be as different from one another as the genders differ too

Question 51

Muted group theory

Answer 51

Minorities in society have less power than others - due to this they are silenced/non one listens to them. Most culture women are dominated by male status/power

Question 52

Inclusion

Answer 52

The making of certain people/groups feel that they belong and are valued

Question 53

Exclusion

Answer 53

The making of certain people or groups feel left out and unimportant

Question 54

Case study : England

Answer 54

William the conqueror invaded England in 1066 - Norman french became the official language (replacing Old english/Anglo-Saxon). French was the language of aristocracy/powerful for 200 yrs in England - peasants spoke old english. The two languages merged forming present-day english

Question 55

Case study : Language and religion

Answer 55

Roman Catholic Church opposed the first translations of the bible into english from Latin - 1300s. People were burned as heretics because they wished to worship in english. Language of worship became apart of self-identity to the extreme where it affected living/dieing.

Question 56

Case study : South America

Answer 56

Spains colonial rule - Spanish replaced Quechua/other Amerindian languages in most of South America. Portuguese became the official lannguage of Brazil. Amerindian languages are still spoken, Spanish and Portuguese are the most spoken.

Question 56

Case study : South America

Answer 56

Spains colonial rule - Spanish replaced Quechua/other Amerindian languages in most of South America. Portuguese became the official lannguage of Brazil. Amerindian languages are still spoken, Spanish and Portuguese are the most spoken.

Question 57

Case study : NNew Zealand

Answer 57

Minority languages were wiped out, but few survived (Māori); however official attitudes/policies discouraged its use . Children were forbidden to speak it in schools - seen as irrelevant for economic advancement. Concern by groups in New Zealand reversed this policy - Māori is now an official language. This inclusive policy transformed a minority native language into a mainstream component of the national culture

~> Colonisation wiped out many languages
~> British colonisation - India; south-east Asia; North America; Australasia

Question 58

Case study : North America

Answer 58

Forced transport of groups -slave trade between Africa/USA - had huge impacts on languages. Slaves worked on plantations and spoke a variety of languages and excluded from their rights in this environment. Fearing rebellion, owners mixed the language groups. This deprivation created pidgin.

~> Overtime this has now become a complex grammatical structure to form a language
~> The power of language to include those suffering exclusion is exemplified in 1960s - US civil rights movement n
—> Martin Luther King - leader in making significant advances in this struggle

Question 59

Case study : South Africa

Answer 59

The apartheid regime - controlling white government proposed black children should be taught in Afrikaans. Unpopular - sparked riots in 1976 - english education was seen as an advantage being denied to them

Question 60

Stereotypes

Answer 60

Language is a direct factor in exclusion and inclusion - also integral part of stereotyping.
~> Stereotype based on broad generalisation about a group -judgement/labels/frequently negative~>~>

Question 61

Case study : online social groups/fan sites

Answer 61

Fan is derived from fanatic. Therefore linking it to the excess behaviour exhibited by some of them.

• Online followings/international coverage have created communities of support

Chracteristics
• Forum providing/sharing interests/ideas - specialist knowledge gives status
• Allows like-minded/specific interest people to meet
• Share jargon/common language - providing linguistic cohesion
~> Non-members are excluded for their ignorance
~> Membership/language are important discriminators

Question 62

Interviews

Answer 62

Relationship between star and fans in another medium. In this shared values/inclusive language form part. This helps maintain the link between star and fans

Question 63

Speech and sound production

Answer 63

Speech is produced as we breathe out
• Vowels are made with non restrictions of air - mouth shape forms sound
• Consonants are made with restrictions of airflow

Question 64

Accent

Answer 64

Refer to way in which word is pronounced - huge variety in the English language
~> RP is deemed as the perfect pronunciation

Apart from RP accents are usually associated with geographical areas
~> Accents change more quickly than spelling of languages -pronunciation differs from spelling

• Same pronunciation spelled differently - ‘knight’/‘night’
• Same spelling, different pronunciation - ‘refuse’/‘refuse’
• Silent letters - ‘ballet’
• Diverge in spelling (USA/UK) - ‘program’/programme’

Question 65

Accents and status

Answer 65

Certain accents/dialects carry more prestige.
~> UK - broader accents have been associated with lower socioeconomics/formal unifications
~> Higher socioeconomic groups = higher qualifications - able to be mobile geographically/socially

Now with greater ethnic mixes - wider travel work/leisure - causing more accents to be found in urban areas

Question 66

Case study : accent neutralisation

Answer 66

Demand for neutral global accent in call centre industry is seeing Indians workers stripped of their mother tongue. Training for American/British accents was present - now leaning towards a ‘neutral global’ accent - allowing for various markets to be served without additional training.

Demand for globalised speech has led to the creation of accent neutralisation institutes
~> Skilled workers don’t want to work in call centres/ those that don’t speak well don’t come from good schools
~> Schools don’t concentrate on phonetics - picking up sounds from mother tongue - get rid of that influence
~> Program is 3/4 weeks - 3 months
~> Practices have not lead to a loss in culture