Unit 10 - Language And The Self Flashcards
Self
An individual separate existence from other people
Early childhood development
The physical/intellectual/emotional and social development which takes place from birth to primary school
Self-identity
Indiviudals awareness of their own unique characteristics in the social groups around them
Sense of self development
No one is born with a sense of self; only during early childhood development that an identity os formed
~> NNew born babies do not respond as they are not aware that others are sseperate from the m
~> 2 months they begin responding - changing from passive to active behaviour
~> Only later on is a self-identity established
Cognitive development
Is about the development of info processing skills in the brain - ie: processing info/memory/perception/learning language.
—> Cognitive and motor development are set to be linked
~> Self-identity plays a vital part in how we interact with others throughout life - different elements make up our sense of self
Idiolect
The distinctive pattern of indivuals speech
Sociolect
The style of speech shared by people in a particular region/social group
Influence of language on self-identity
• Voice is an instantly recognisable - individual speech pattern is your idiolect
• Form of language you speak -geography/group- is your sociolect
• Gender/age/education/ ect. Link to your self-identity. Some parts of your life are more significant at 🕑
Conversational maxims
Paul Grice’s maxims
• Maxim of quantity : contributions should be as informative as necessary ; they should not be more informative than what is necessary
• Maxim of relation : be relevant
• Maxim of quality : do not say what you believe to be false ; do not speak without adequate evidence
• Maxim of manner : avoid obscurity of expression ; avoid ambiguity ; be brief/no rambling ; be orderly
Cooperative principle
The principle of speakers usually mean what they say and hearers accept this in trying to work out the meaning
Conversational face
Image that a person has of themselves as a conversationalist
Face-threatening acts
Acts/words which appear to threaten the self esteem of a speaker in conversation
Positive politeness
Friendly strategies to make the participant feel good about themselves -compliments/nicknames/mutaually understood jargon
Negative politeness
Strategies intended to avoid giving offence/imposing on others by showing respect - ie: ‘would you mind’ ; ‘I hope you don’t mind’
Adversative conjunction
A connecting word which starts an idea opposing the one which has just been stated - ie: ‘but’ ; ‘however’
Cognitive skills
Brain skills which are needed to perform any mental/physical task. Concerned with the mechanisms of carrying out these tasks rather than with any knowledge
Perception
Recognition and interpretation through the senses
Attention
Being able to concentrate on a particular mental/physical task and sustaining that concentration over other distractions in the environment
Memory
The storage and retrieval of info in the brain
—> divided into short term - actively retain a small amount of info
—> and long term - info stored for an indefinite period of time + can be retrieved
Motor skill
Ability to move the body and manipulate objects
Language
The skill which changes sounds into words to be spoken
Visual and special processing
Ability to understand relationships between objects and visualise images and ideas inn the imagination
Behaviourism
Acquisition of the sense of self takes place alongside the acquisition of language.
~> All thoughts and emotions are explained in terms of encouraging desired behaviour
~> BF Skinner
Empiricism
States that sense of self-identity + knowledge of language come through senses and experiences, and not through reasoning/logical argument
~> Humans are born with a clean slate mentally therefore explaining why our experiences shape us
Innatism
There is something special about the human brain which enables it to master the complexities of language
~> Goes against the ‘blank slate’ theory
~> Follows nth thought that ideas were in the mind at birth and given by a supreme being
Nativism
Based on innatism -individual is born with genetic abilities which include the development of language
~> Naom Chomsky - LAD enables the initial development of language which interacts with an individuals childhood experiences within a society to produce both langue/sense of self
Linguistic determinism
Idea that the structure of a language determines the thought processes of its speakers
Linguistic reflectionism
Idea that language reflects the thoughts/ideas of a culture
~> linguistic determinism is the opposing idea
Linguistic relativity
Idea that the structure of a language affects a persons view of the world either very directly - as in linguistic determinism - or as a much more indirect/weaker influence
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Hypothesis supports the view that the words/grammar of a language directly shape the thoughts of its speakers
~> ie: eng has one word for snow, Inuit tribes have 3 - Inuit people think more subtlety about snow
• Linguistic determinism
- Language defines our thinking
- Society is confined by its language
- Words directly frame our thoughts
• Linguistic reflectionismn
- Language reflects the thoughts of its speakers
- Language influences peoples view on the world but doesn’t determine it
• Linguistic relativity
- Structure of a language doesn’t affect the speakers world
Criticism
~ Whorf gave examples of language differences relating to concepts of time, space and lifestyle
Compared Eng with Native American Indian languages. Believed to not think through terms of tenses (past/present/future) - ultimately flawed as they did have an understanding of time ( using future and non-future tenses)
~ Boas-Jakobson principle (1950s)
Sapir-Whorf - lannguage acts as a prison; restricting reasoning/understanding abilities
Boas-Jakobson theory - every thought can be expressed in every language, but the languages differ in the required information
Universalism
Language is a reflection of human thoughts and that all languages are similar with shared patterns/concepts
~. All humans have the same cognitive processes - memory + perception - which are reflected in every language, so that ideas can easily translated between langauges
Language and social equality
• Gender : traditional words for employment imply that only men can do them (ie: fireman, policeman)
- they have now become neutral (ie: firefighter)
• Comedy : certain types are not acceptable (ie:personnnal/derogatory comments at the expense of others physical appearance
• Ethnicity : politically correct language combats many unpleasant racist slurs/insults
- now become illegal in most countries
• Workplace changes : ⬆️ no of women in senior roles throughout the world
- reducing stereotypes ~ boss (he) ; PA (she)
• Age : Illegal to discriminate in terms of age
- specifically older women subject to ageist discrimination
- change attitudes about ageing, making aware of reinforcing stereotypes
• Disability : Laws against discrimination aim to remove belief of being defined by their disability
- use o ‘handicap’ rather than disabled
• Religious beliefs
Stereotype
A very generalised opinion/idea about a type of person/group . It is a simplified and biased image, often produces negative feelings an out those concerned
Political correctness
Avoiding offence to any group of people who may be seen to be at a disadvantage because of their race/gender/disability/ect.
~> Intentions of treating people equally
- criticised for being overly sensitive
Convergence
When we make our language style similar to those speakers around us
~> Language used by group member can have an influence on an individuals sense of self - aim to be like the majority of the group
~> Giles - we don’t like appearing different from those we spend time with; therefore accommodating/changing
Divergence
When we make our lannguage more distinctly different from those speakers around us
Speech communities
Groups of people who use the same variety of language and have a shared understanding of its style
~> ie: sociolect/accent/lexis/syntax
Linguistic prestige
The degree of respect and value given to a particular style of language by a speech community
New York - William Labour 1966
~> Pronunciation of consonant ‘r’ after a vowel, which produces a distinct sound (often heard in Scotland/Ireland/North America). This was noted as being prestige.
~> Lower/middle workinng class were likely to channge the way they spoke to reflect the ‘right’ way of speaking
Norwich, UK -Peter Trudgill 1974
~> Investigated a similar indicator of language and social class - working class women were more aware of the more prestige forms of pronunciation
Great British Class survey, 2011
~> BBC conducted survey -upper/middle/working class satirised in shows are outdated ; however clear divisions still exist based on wealth/access to technical knowledge
Restricted and elaborated codes - Basil Bernstein 1971
~> Relates to language skills of early years of primary school children in unit 8.5
Standard and non-standard English
Prescriptivist view:
~ Influential in earlier times as reinforced through grammar books/dictionaries which stated rules
Context for language views:
1~ Formal - Standard English is followed inn both speech and written forms
2~ Colloquial/casual - Everyday language used in both speech and written form
3~ Slang/nonstandard - Basic/informal variety of english. Found more in speech rather than in writing
4~ Frozen - Unchanging language full of archaisms
Slang
May not be considered to be polite, becomes outdated quickly, but usually spreads rapidly (greatly aided through global links).
~> Slang can be an identity marker; marking its users as a group who wish to be set apart from other non-users
- When slang becomes wide spread amongst populations it ceases to be slang and becomes part of the language
Jargon
Form of nonstandard englsih as its not apart of main-stream use. Usually relates to specialist groups/professionals
Patois
Particular variety of speech used by a group which may be regarded as having low status
Teenage language
• Early adopters of pop culture; innnovators of language
• Information needs to be communicated in digital age of social network - blurs the line between spoken and written lannguage
• May be reducing lexis
• Teenage language acquisition is not about learning languages but about adapting/using lannguage in adult situations
Code switch
Switching between different varieties/registers of language
Language and gender
• 1963 US law instated ruling equal pay for equal work
• Traditionally the male maxim dominates in writing/ has become the norm - mankind
Differences in male and female language
Female
• Stereotype - passive listeners; lightweight discourse/gossip
• Traditionally brought up to be more compliant than boys - sporty girls = tomboys
• A most universally responsible for child-rearing - want to be display model behaviour - including speech
Male
• Stereotype - weighty conversation/ serious debate and men interrupt/hold conversational floors
• Perceived dominance of males in mixed communities has become concerning in educational institutions
• Equality of races/genders has lended itself to outdating male dominance••
Santa Barbara campus of university of California case study:
• White, middle class and under 35
• 11/31 between men and women - 46 interruptions M; 2 interruptions F
Computer mediated communication
Commnnunication between people by means of electronic devices - ie: email/text
Male and female conversation - Zimmern and West 1970
Gossip is an evolutionary strategy to forge friendships/keep up to date, providing adavntages in an uncertain world - therefor of equal advantage to to men and women
~> Found that men gossip just as much as women
~> Women no less likely to discuss ‘weighty’ topics
~> When gossiping men tend to talk more about themselves
Characteristics:
• Men < to give supportive feedback
• Women conversationally cooperative, giving more feedback etc.
• Women tend to do the ‘hard work’ keep conversation going by asking questions/etc. - this is the politeness principle; uses ‘please/thanks’
• Lexical choices are evaluated more by women + increased use of adverbs
• Mens language considered coarser - women use more standard forms of english
Genderlect theory
Deborah Tannen - linked to status/roles of participants in the western society
Styles of conversation - M : F
• status : support
• independence : intimacy
• advice : understanding
• info : feelings
• orders : proposals
• conflict : compromise
~> Mens convos -giving/receiving info - want to be seen to act independently/put across status/security
- Often assertive with no strategies to avoid conflict
~> Women convos - building/reinforcing relationships + negotiating tactics/compromising/polite forms of discourse
More recent studies show - females using nonstandard english + assertiveness associated with men
Standpoint theory
Women and their languages should be practised from the viewpoint of women. Suggests that in most societies, womens lives/experiences are different of men and have different knowledge - may not be given equal status to men
~> Criticism : womens lives may be as different from one another as the genders differ too
Muted group theory
Minorities in society have less power than others - due to this they are silenced/non one listens to them. Most culture women are dominated by male status/power
Inclusion
The making of certain people/groups feel that they belong and are valued
Exclusion
The making of certain people or groups feel left out and unimportant
Case study : England
William the conqueror invaded England in 1066 - Norman french became the official language (replacing Old english/Anglo-Saxon). French was the language of aristocracy/powerful for 200 yrs in England - peasants spoke old english. The two languages merged forming present-day english
Case study : Language and religion
Roman Catholic Church opposed the first translations of the bible into english from Latin - 1300s. People were burned as heretics because they wished to worship in english. Language of worship became apart of self-identity to the extreme where it affected living/dieing.
Case study : South America
Spains colonial rule - Spanish replaced Quechua/other Amerindian languages in most of South America. Portuguese became the official lannguage of Brazil. Amerindian languages are still spoken, Spanish and Portuguese are the most spoken.
Case study : South America
Spains colonial rule - Spanish replaced Quechua/other Amerindian languages in most of South America. Portuguese became the official lannguage of Brazil. Amerindian languages are still spoken, Spanish and Portuguese are the most spoken.
Case study : NNew Zealand
Minority languages were wiped out, but few survived (Māori); however official attitudes/policies discouraged its use . Children were forbidden to speak it in schools - seen as irrelevant for economic advancement. Concern by groups in New Zealand reversed this policy - Māori is now an official language. This inclusive policy transformed a minority native language into a mainstream component of the national culture
~> Colonisation wiped out many languages
~> British colonisation - India; south-east Asia; North America; Australasia
Case study : North America
Forced transport of groups -slave trade between Africa/USA - had huge impacts on languages. Slaves worked on plantations and spoke a variety of languages and excluded from their rights in this environment. Fearing rebellion, owners mixed the language groups. This deprivation created pidgin.
~> Overtime this has now become a complex grammatical structure to form a language
~> The power of language to include those suffering exclusion is exemplified in 1960s - US civil rights movement n
—> Martin Luther King - leader in making significant advances in this struggle
Case study : South Africa
The apartheid regime - controlling white government proposed black children should be taught in Afrikaans. Unpopular - sparked riots in 1976 - english education was seen as an advantage being denied to them
Stereotypes
Language is a direct factor in exclusion and inclusion - also integral part of stereotyping.
~> Stereotype based on broad generalisation about a group -judgement/labels/frequently negative~>~>
Case study : online social groups/fan sites
Fan is derived from fanatic. Therefore linking it to the excess behaviour exhibited by some of them.
• Online followings/international coverage have created communities of support
Chracteristics
• Forum providing/sharing interests/ideas - specialist knowledge gives status
• Allows like-minded/specific interest people to meet
• Share jargon/common language - providing linguistic cohesion
~> Non-members are excluded for their ignorance
~> Membership/language are important discriminators
Interviews
Relationship between star and fans in another medium. In this shared values/inclusive language form part. This helps maintain the link between star and fans
Speech and sound production
Speech is produced as we breathe out
• Vowels are made with non restrictions of air - mouth shape forms sound
• Consonants are made with restrictions of airflow
Accent
Refer to way in which word is pronounced - huge variety in the English language
~> RP is deemed as the perfect pronunciation
Apart from RP accents are usually associated with geographical areas
~> Accents change more quickly than spelling of languages -pronunciation differs from spelling
• Same pronunciation spelled differently - ‘knight’/‘night’
• Same spelling, different pronunciation - ‘refuse’/‘refuse’
• Silent letters - ‘ballet’
• Diverge in spelling (USA/UK) - ‘program’/programme’
Accents and status
Certain accents/dialects carry more prestige.
~> UK - broader accents have been associated with lower socioeconomics/formal unifications
~> Higher socioeconomic groups = higher qualifications - able to be mobile geographically/socially
Now with greater ethnic mixes - wider travel work/leisure - causing more accents to be found in urban areas
Case study : accent neutralisation
Demand for neutral global accent in call centre industry is seeing Indians workers stripped of their mother tongue. Training for American/British accents was present - now leaning towards a ‘neutral global’ accent - allowing for various markets to be served without additional training.
Demand for globalised speech has led to the creation of accent neutralisation institutes
~> Skilled workers don’t want to work in call centres/ those that don’t speak well don’t come from good schools
~> Schools don’t concentrate on phonetics - picking up sounds from mother tongue - get rid of that influence
~> Program is 3/4 weeks - 3 months
~> Practices have not lead to a loss in culture
