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Intro Behavioral Neuroscience > Unit 1 - Signaling Basics > Flashcards

Unit 1 - Signaling Basics Flashcards

ace this motherfucking exam

1
Q

Northern blot

A

a technique by which the composition of a cell is analyzed to determine WHETHER a particular gene is present in the DNA

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2
Q

Southern blot

A

a technique by which the composition of a cell is analyzed to determine WHETHER a protein is present in the cell or not and HOW MUCH

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3
Q

In situ hybridization

A

Determination of where the mRNA is expressed in a given cell or tissue by exposure to a complimentary and labelled strand of RNA

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4
Q

Western blot

A

HOW MUCH of a protein is being produced, run through gel electrophoresis

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5
Q

Immunocytochemistry

A

WHERE the protein is located as it is being synthesized, with antibody labelling

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6
Q

Golgi’s neuroanatomy theory

A

Neurons are continuous with each other

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7
Q

Ramon y Cajal’s neuroanatomy theory

A

Neurons are discrete units but are very close together

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8
Q

Input zone

A

where the original signal is recieved in the soma and dendrites

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9
Q

Integration zone

A

where the decision is made whether or not to propagate the signal, at the axon hillock

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10
Q

Conduction zone

A

where the signal is propagated by a action potential down the axon

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11
Q

Output zone

A

where the signal is sent on through the synapses at axon terminals by neurotransmitters to other neurons

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12
Q

Multipolar neuron

A

“Standard neuron”, input zone with many dendrites, passes through cell body to axon hillock

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13
Q

Bipolar neuron

A

one large dendrite, then axon

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14
Q

Unipolar neuron

A

cell body has 2 axons, neural signal automatically transmitted to the dendrite branches which are connected to the axons (dendritic branches at the one end, axon terminals at the other)

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15
Q

Glial cell

A

the ‘other’ type of nervous system cell that are roughly 50% of total cells and 90% of mass

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16
Q

Astrocytes

A

Absorb chemicals released by axons and return chemicals back to axon, remove waste products, cause blood vessels to dilate

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17
Q

Microglia

A

Very small cells that remove waste materials as well as viruses, fungi, and other microorganisms

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18
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

a type of glia that builds the myelin sheaths around certain neurons in the brain and spinal cord (CNS)

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19
Q

Schwann cells

A

a type of glia that builds the myelin sheaths around certain neurons in the periphery of the body (PNS)

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20
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

spaces between myelin sheaths containing voltage-gated ion channels responsible for propagating the action potential

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21
Q

Golgi stain and fluorescent dye injection

A

fills the entire cell

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22
Q

Nissl stain

A

stains only the cell bodies

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23
Q

Tracing pathways

A

use anterograde or retrograde tracers to determine how one structure is connected to another

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24
Q

Ganglia

A

groups of cell bodies in the PNS

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25
Q

Nuclei

A

Groups of cell bodies in the CNS, producing gray matter

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26
Q

Nerves

A

cluster of axons in the PNS

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27
Q

Tracts

A

bundles of axons in the CNS

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28
Q

Afferent

A

arriving to a structure

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29
Q

Efferent

A

exiting a specific structure

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30
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

division of the nervous system that we cannot control, which is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic, as well as the enteric nervous system

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31
Q

Cranial Nerve I

A

Olfactory (smell)

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32
Q

Cranial Nerve II

A

Optic (vision)

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33
Q

Cranial Nerve VIII

A

Vestibulocochlear (inner ear, hearing and balance)

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34
Q

Cranial Nerve IX

A

Glossopharyngeal (taste and other mouth sensations, throat muscles)

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35
Q

Cranial Nerve X

A

Vagus (information from internal organs)

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36
Q

All preganglionic neurons are _____ receptors

A

cholinergic (acetylcholine activated)

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37
Q

Postganglionic neurons are _____ receptors

A

acetylcholine or norepinephrine

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38
Q

Gyri

A

folds/ridges

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39
Q

Sulci

A

grooves

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40
Q

Sylvian fissure

A

Groove separating the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes

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41
Q

Central sulcus

A

Groove separating the frontal and parietal lobes

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42
Q

Precentral gyrus

A

Posterior end of the frontal lobe known as the primary motor cortex

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43
Q

Postcentral gyrus

A

ventral end of parietal lobe known as the primary somatosensory cortex

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44
Q

Cingulate gyrus

A

wraps around the white matter of the corpus callosum, for emotional regulation, pain, and avoiding negative consequences, part of limbic system

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45
Q

Tectum

A

“Roof” of cerebral aqueduct in the midbrain, where colliculi are located

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46
Q

Tegmentum

A

below tectum down to pons and medulla oblongata, motor control and reward, reticular formation
LOCATION OF THE VENTRAL TEGMENTAL AREA

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47
Q

Basal ganglia

A

brain system found in forebrain connected to the cerebral cortex responsible for motor functions

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48
Q

Limbic system

A

brain system in forebrain responsible for emotional regulation, memory formation, and motivation/reward

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49
Q

Neocortex

A

6 layered section of the brain organized in columns
Layer 1: axons
Layer 2-6: cell bodies

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50
Q

Allocortex

A

phylogenetically older cortex that may have 3 layers or 0, but typically not referred to as cortex

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51
Q

Interneurons

A

Neurons that modulate activity of principal neurons of the structure, do not project outside the structure

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52
Q

Cerebellum

A

“little brain” consists of a molecular layer with parallel fibers, the Purkinje cell layer, and the granule cell layer (white matter)
COORDINATION OF VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS

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53
Q

Meninges

A

Protective membrane in your brain bathed in Cerebrospinal fluid
-dura mater–>arachnoid (CSF)–>pia mater

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54
Q

Cerebral ventricles

A

Supplies brain’s blood supply, consisting of lateral ventricles, third ventricle, and 4th ventricle

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55
Q

Circle of willis

A

Allows arteries to rejoin in center - carotid artery and vertebral artery

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56
Q

Glymphatic system

A

Brain’s version of the lymphatic system, where CSF flows from subarachnoid space to space surrounding arterioles, which flows into them, accumulating materials, then draining into the perivascular space

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57
Q

CT or CAT (computerized axial tomography)

A

good image resolution, uses x-rays moving in an arc around head to build image

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58
Q

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A

No x-rays, uses magnets to alter protons’ orientation in cells, better imaging resolution than CT

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59
Q

DTI (diffusion tensor imaging)

A

Uses MRI signal reflecting the diffusion of water molecules, can be used to identify axonal pathways

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60
Q

PET (positron emission tomography)

A

uses radioactive chemicals injected into blood (glucose), taken up by neurons, more taken up by more active brain regions

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61
Q

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

A

Uses magnetic field gradients that rapidly cycle, measures changes in oxygenated blood, but lower image resolution

62
Q

TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation)

A

stimulation or alteration of activity, providing focal magnetic currents at specific regions of the cortex

63
Q

Voltage

A

Measure of the stored or potential membrane across a membrane, indicated by a “potential difference”

64
Q

Current

A

measure of the rate of flow of the energy

65
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

voltage between inside and outside of the cell must have a separation of ions, with the inside being more negative relative to the outside

66
Q

Na+ K+ pump

A

the sodium potassium pump, responsible for generation of resting membrane potential and action potentials, requires a TON of energy

67
Q

At rest, what is the cell permeable to?

A

Na+ out and K+ in, Na+ cannot come back in, when the electrical attraction of pulling K+ back in is = gradient pulling it back out, the cell is at equilibrium

68
Q

K+ channels

A

open and selectively permeable

69
Q

Nernst equation

A

calculates the voltage (potential) to reach equilibrium across the membrane - takes into account the charge of the ion and the relative concentration outside v. inside

70
Q

What is the action potential threshold?

A

-40 mV

71
Q

Graded response

A

a response that decays over time/distance, indicative of a PASSIVE spread of potential, known as a local potential

72
Q

Relative refractory period

A

Requires an extra strong stimulus to fire a 2nd AP

73
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

cannot fire a second AP

74
Q

What do Hertz (Hz) represent?

A

the measure of APs/second
4 Hz = 4 APs/second

75
Q

APs must____

A

regenerate by Na+ channels reopening as AP spreads along the axon

76
Q

Conduction velocity affected by

A
  1. diameter of axon - larger=faster
  2. myelination produces saltatory conduction, which is faster
77
Q

How do neurons communicate?

A

Neurotransmitter release by synapses, which can briefly alter the resting potential of the postsynaptic cell

78
Q

What determines excitation or inhibition?

A

The neurotransmitter + its receptor

79
Q

What determines cell firing?

A

Whether the membrane potential reaches the ‘threshold’ at the axon hillock

80
Q

Excitatory postsynaptic potential

A

a synaptic potential that increases the chance that a future action potential will occur in a postsynaptic neuron

81
Q

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

A

a synaptic potential that decreases the chance that a future action potential will occur in a postsynaptic neuron

82
Q

How does distance affect the impact of the EPSP/IPSP?

A

The farther the synapse is from the axon, the smaller it will be when it arrives at the axon hillock

83
Q

Spatial summation

A

all inputs add up to the net amount

84
Q

temporal summation

A

1 input that fires multiple EPSPs over time (multiple spikes in graph before threshold)

85
Q

How do APs trigger NT release?

A

Depolarization leads to influx of Ca2+, which promotes exocytosis of vesicles

86
Q

Degradation

A

Enzyme breaks down NTs, which are trashed, returned to axon, and reconstructed)

87
Q

Reuptake

A

Transmitters recycled to axon, slowing synaptic action potential

88
Q

Neurons are often identified by their ____

A

Neurotransmitter type (Dopamine, glutamate, etc.)

89
Q

Ionotropic receptors

A

fast receptors that are ion channels

90
Q

Metabotropic receptors

A

Neurotransmitter binds to a receptor, which in turn activates GPCRs, which activate the ion channels - slower process

91
Q

GPCRs may open channels as well, but more commonly activate intracellular signaling mechanisms via ___ ____

A

second messengers

92
Q

How do GPCRs activate second messengers?

A

The activation of the G-protein (couple to GTP) increases the concentration of a second messenger, which may open or close ion channels, alter production of activating proteins, or activate chromosomes

93
Q

True or False: NTs have multiple receptor subtypes

A

True: if a receptor and an NT are like a lock and key, then an NT is a master key that opens every receptor for it

94
Q

Endogenous ligands

A

ligand or NT that works on all subtypes

95
Q

Exogenous ligands

A

ligand or NT that only works on one subtype, or just a few

96
Q

Agonist

A

increases activation of receptors, and helps to differentiate between different classes of receptors

97
Q

Antagonists

A

blocks activation of receptors

98
Q

EEG (electroencephalography)

A

puts electrodes on scalp and picks up electrical activity of the brain
-good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution

99
Q

ERP (event related potential)

A

Measure brain potentials on a larger level, have been time-locked to a particular stimulus

100
Q

Optogenetics

A

based on molecular tools that enable insertion of light-sensitive proteins into cells called opsins - when exposed to light, opsins open

101
Q

Amino acid NTs

A

GABA - primary fast inhibitory
Glutamate - primary fast excitatory

102
Q

Mono amine NTs

A

-Serotonin
-dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine (catecholamines)

103
Q

Acetylcholine

A

third major type of NT
(cholinergics)

104
Q

Inverse agonists

A

produces opposite effect from normal activation of receptor

105
Q

Competitive ligands

A

bind directly to receptor

106
Q

Non-competitive ligands

A

can bind to another site on receptor (allosteric site), changing the conformation of the receptor and preventing the NT from binding

107
Q

Nicotinic receptors

A

Ionotropic and excitatory, skeletal muscles, causing contraction

108
Q

Muscarinic receptors

A

GPCRs, metabotropic and inhibitory, on target organs of parasympathetic nervous system

109
Q

Importance of ACh in CNS

A

Learning/memory and attention

110
Q

Dopamine (DA) receptors

A

All GPCRs
Excitatory D1 and D5 - stimulate production of cAMP
Inhibitory D2-4 - inhibit production of cAMP

111
Q

Mesolimbic cortical pathway: ventral tegmental area)

A

Emotional regulation, reward, reinforcement, addiction

112
Q

Mesostriatal system

A

Substantia Nigra (SN) DA neurons innervate the dorsal striatum - motor control

113
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

neurodegenerative disease cause by destruction of SN dopamine neurons

114
Q

Norepinephrine (NE)

A

Four subtypes - alpha 1/2, beta 1/2 - GPCRS
-involved in emotional arousal, mood, sexual behavior, learning and memory

115
Q

NE Alpha 1

A

activates phospholipase C

116
Q

NE beta 1 beta 2

A

stimulatory to cAMP system

117
Q

NE alpha 2

A

inhibitory to cAMP system - frequently an autoreceptor or presynaptic receptor

118
Q

Serotonin (5HT)

A

19 subtypes - GPCRs (except one)
-involved in mood, anxiety, sleep, and variety of other functions
-one of most complex NT systems

119
Q

GABA

A

-interneurons, regulating neuronal activity locally
-exceptions in striatum (caudate-putamen and nucleus accumbens)
-primary inhibitory NT in the CNS
-amino acid (not one used in building proteins)
-triggers influx of Cl-, creating hyperpolarization

120
Q

GABA (A)

A

receptor, ionotropic, activation of chloride channels decreases neuronal excitability (GABA C as well)

121
Q

GABA (B)

A

receptor, metabotropic, slow IPSP

122
Q

Glutamate

A

primary fast excitatory NT in CNS
-principle projection neurons of most forebrain structures (pyramidal cells)
-receptors: 3 ionotropic iGluRs and several metabotropic mGluRs

123
Q

iGluRs

A

AMPA, kainate, NMDA
-AMPA and kainate very similar

124
Q

NMDA receptors

A

influx of calcium - critically affects internal signaling mechanisms
-very important in synaptic plasticity and learning/memory

125
Q

Glutamate v. GABA

A

glutamatergic - found on dendritic heads
-GABAergic - found on dendritic shaft of spine, proximal regions of dendrites, cell bodies, close to axon hillock (greater ability to silence neurons)

126
Q

Peptides

A

Co -transmitters that can be opioid-peptides release with GABA or gases that diffuse retrograde across membranes

127
Q

How does cocaine affect catecholamines?

A

Blocks reception, increasing activation of receptors indirectly

128
Q

ED50

A

dose that produces 1/2 of the maximal effect

129
Q

If a drug has a higher ED50, then…

A

it must not be very potent

130
Q

If Drug B has a much less maximal effect than Drug A, no matter how much of A is given, then drug B is…

A

a partial agonist or partial antagonist

131
Q

LD50

A

does that kills 1/2 of the people/animals that receive it

132
Q

TD50

A

dose that produces toxicity in 1/2 of the people/animals that recieve it

133
Q

Reuptake transporters

A

5HT–> SERT
NE–>NET
DA–>DAT

134
Q

Antipsychotics (neuroleptics)

A

2nd gen antipsychotics - dopaminergic and nondopaminergic effects

135
Q

Antidepressants

A

-MAO inhibitor (monoamine oxidase) - dangerous dietary interactions
-tricyclics - block NET and SERT
-SSRIs and SNRIs
-All suggests 5HT and NE are important in depression

136
Q

Alcohol

A

molecular structure allows it to go throughout body easily
-many effects
-chronic use = loss of neurons, synapses, reduces neurogenesis

137
Q

Opioids

A

wonder drugs - analgesic properties
-led to discover of endogenous opioid-peptides

137
Q

Opioid receptor subtypes

A

Mu, delta, kappa (GPCRs)
-periaqueductal gray - key area for analgesic effects
-mu in VTA (addiction)
inhibitory to cell, located on GABA neurons that inhibit DA neurons

138
Q

Cannabis

A

key component - THC
CB1 and 2 receptors (GPCRs) - endocannabinoids

139
Q

Stimulants (nicotine(

A

overall excitatory, rewarding/reinforcing effects due to nAChRs in VTA, highly addictive

140
Q

Stimulants (cocaine)

A

blocks dopamine transporter (DAT) (reuptake mechanism), dependent on APs for effects

141
Q

Stimulants (amphetamines and relatives)

A

amphetamine, methamphetamine, methylphenidate (Ritalin), reverses dopamine transporter

142
Q

Psychedelics and other dissociatives

A

Work through variety of systems
-LSD, muscarine, mescaline
-PCP and ketamine - NMDA antagonists produce dissociative states
-MDMA - ecstasy - increases serotonin levels

143
Q

Addiction

A

compulsive or near-compulsive drive to seek out and take drug

144
Q

Physical dependence model

A

problem = not all drugs show “physical dependence” or withdrawal symptoms, causing people to return to drug use after long periods of abstinence

145
Q

Sensitization

A

repeated injection of drug produces a “sensitized” motor response to the drug

146
Q

Conditioned place preference

A

Pair a particular comparment of a two-comparment chamber with drug - other compartment gets saline pairing,
-shows basic associative learning between rewarding stimulus and particular context

147
Q

Self-administration

A

Animal must engage in operant behavior to recieve drug of abuse
-enables investigation of reinforcing effects of drugs of abuse in operant task as well as associative learning

148
Q

Microdialysis

A

Use semipermeable membrane at tip of dialysis probe that is lowered into brain structure
-artificial CSF passed through probe, picking up any extracellular molecules small enough to cross membrane

149
Q
A

Intro Behavioral Neuroscience (3 decks)

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