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Psychology > Unit 1 - Research methods > Flashcards

Unit 1 - Research methods Flashcards

1
Q

1 - Independent variable (IV)

2 - Dependent variable (DV)

3 - What must all variables be? Give an example?

A

1 - An event that is directly manipulated by the experimenter in order to observe its effects on the DV

2 - Dependent on the IV

3 - Variables must be operationalised i.e. defined in a way that they can be tested.
E.G
Instead of DV ‘educational attainment’, an experimenter must specify a way to measure this such as GCSE grades

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2
Q

What is the aim of a study?

A

Aim of any study is a statement of what the researcher intends to investigate

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3
Q

Define a hypothesis

A

A precise and testable (operationalised) statement and the expected relationship between variables

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4
Q

1 - Directional hypothesis

2 - Non-directional hypothesis

3 - Null hypothesis

A

1 - Also known as ONE TAILED HYPOTHESIS. States direction of the relationship (trend/correlation) between the variables being investigated

2 - Also known as TWO TAILED HYPOTHESIS. Predicting that there will be a difference or relationship between the variables being investigated without stating the direction of the relationship

3 - Tends to state that there will be no difference relationship between the variables being investigated

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5
Q

Define experimental design and list the 3 possibilities

A

It’s a set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participant variables in an experiment

  • Repeated measures
  • Independent groups
  • Matched pairs
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6
Q

Experimental design:

Repeated measures

+/- VEs

A

Some participants in every condition being tested

+ Good control for participant variables
+ Fewer participants needed

  • Order effects (e.g. boredom, practice)
  • Participants may guess the purpose of the experiment
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7
Q

Experimental design:

Independent groups

+/- VEs

A

Participants are allocated to 2 (or more) groups representing different experimental conditions

+ Avoids order effects and participants guessing the purpose of the experiment

  • Needs more participants
  • No control of participant variables (can use random allocation)
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8
Q

Experimental design:

Matched pairs

+/- VEs

A

Pairs of participants matched on key participant variables. 1 member of each pair is placed in the experimental group and the other in the control group

+ Avoid order effects
+ Participant variables partly controlled

  • Matching is difficult and never totally successful
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9
Q

Counterbalancing. How is it used in experimental designs?

A

Used to deal with order effects by ensuring that each condition is tested fist or second in equal amounts

  • Some participants receive condition A then B, others receive B then A
  • Or ABBA - All participants receive A B then B A
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10
Q

What do these variables provide/ contain? (Experimental designs)

1 - Experimental condition

2 - Control condition

A

1 - Contains IV

2 - Provides a baseline measure of behaviour without the experimental treatment (IV), so that the effect of the experimental treatment may be assessed

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11
Q

Name the types of groups used in an experiment?

3

A

Independent groups design

Experimental group

Control group

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12
Q

How are behavioural categories separated? (2)

What should behavioural categories be? (3)

A

Observational design

1 - BEHAVIOURAL CHECKLIST
A list of component behaviours

2 - CODING SYSTEM
Individual behaviours are given a code for ease of recording

Behavioural categories should:

  • Be OBJECTIVE = Observer shouldn’t have to make inferences about the behaviour
  • Cover all possible component behaviours and avoid a ‘waste basket’ category
  • Be MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE = You shouldn’t have to mark 2 categories at 1 time
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13
Q

1 - Event sampling

2 - Time sampling

A

1 - Counting the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs in a target individual

2 - Recording behaviours at regular intervals e.g. every 30 seconds

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14
Q

1 - Participant observation

2 - Non - participant observation

A

1 - Observational study where the observer is also a participant in the activity being observed. This may effect the objectivity of their observations

2 - Observational study where the observer is not taking part in the activity being observed

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15
Q

1 - Overt observations

2 - Convert observations. Why?

A

1 - Observation technique where observations are ‘open’ i.e. participants are aware that they’re being observed

2 - Observing people without their knowledge e.g. using one way mirrors. This is done because participants are likely to change their behaviour is they know that they’re being observed

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16
Q

1 - Structured observation

2 - Uncontrolled observation

A

1 - An observer uses various ‘systems’ to organise observations, such as behavioural categories and sampling procedures

2 - An observer records all relevant behaviour but has no system. This technique may be chosen because the behaviour to be studied is largely unpredictable

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17
Q

What makes up a good question in a questionnaire? (4)

A
  • Clear/easy to answer
  • Unambiguous
  • Not biased in any way (not leading)
  • Not threatening
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18
Q

Questionnaires:

Closed questions?
+/- ve?

A

Have a good range of answers from which the participants select one

+ Produce quantitative data = easier to analyse

  • Respondents may be forced to select answers that don’t represent their real thoughts or behaviour
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19
Q

Questionnaires:

Open questions?
+/- ve?

A

Invites respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of those provided. Produces qualitative data

+ Can provide unexpected answers and rich detail, allowing researchers to gain new insights

  • More difficult to summarise answers because there may be such as wide variety of responses. This then makes drawing conclusions difficult
20
Q

Why are filler questions used in questionnaires/interviews?

A

To disguise the true aim of the questionnaire/interview so that respondents are more honest

21
Q

How is reliability determined in experimental studies

A

Repetition

To improve reliability of extraneous variables should be controlled

22
Q

How is reliability determined in observational studies

A

Inter-observer reliability = extent of which there is an agreement between 2 or more observers

ASSESS internal reliability- Correlate the observations of the 2 or more observers. IF:

total no’ agreements / total no’ observations is > 80 then the data has a high inter-observer reliability

Improve reliabilit = observers are trained to use behavioural categories

23
Q

Self report technique to improve reliability?

A

Inter-interviewer reliability = extent to which 2 interviewers produce the same outcome from an interview

ASSESS internal reliability- Use split half method.

Scores/responses on both halves of a test should be constant

ASSESS external reliability - Use test-retest method. Same questionnaire/interview is repeated with the same respondent a few weeks apart

Improve reliability = remove questions which create inconsistency

24
Q

Validity of experimental studies

A

INTERNAL =
The degree to which the observed affect was due to experimental manipulation rather than factors such as extraneous variables. It is also affected by mundane realism and experimental realism

EXTERNAL =
The representativeness of the sample affects the ability to generalise the findings to other people and situations i.e.
Population validity
Ecological validity

25
Q

Validity of observational techniques

A

INTERNAL =
May be affected by an inadequate system of behavioural categories (e.g. not enough categories) and by observer bias (observers expectations affect their objectivity)

EXTERNAL = Naturalistic observations are likely to have high ecological validity but would have low population validity

26
Q

Validity of self report techniques

A

INTERNAL =
Affected by interviewer bias and social desirability bias

IMPROVING VALIDITY =
Use more representative sampling method and better designed questions

ASSESSING VALIDITY =
Compare results with an established measure of the same thing (concurrent validity)

EXTERNAL = Representatives of the sample affects the ability to generalise the findings to other people and situations

27
Q

Name 6 ethical issues

A
  • Informed consent
  • Deception
  • Right to withdraw
  • Protection from harm
  • Confidentiality (and anonymity)
  • Privacy
28
Q

Ethical issues

Informed consent

A
  • Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the study
  • Researchers p.o.v = reduce the meaningfulness of the research because such information will reveal the study’s aims and affect the participants behaviour
29
Q

Ethical issues

Deception

A
  • Participants are not told the true aim of the study and what participation will involve
  • Cannot give full consent
  • Researchers p.o.v = some deception is harmless and/or can be compensated by debriefing
30
Q

Ethical issues

Right to withdraw

A
  • Have the right to withdraw at any time if they feel uncomfortable
  • Right to refuse the researcher permission to use any data they produce
  • Researchers p.o.v = loss of participants may bias the study findings
31
Q

Ethical issues

Protection from harm

A
  • Should not experience any negative physical effects e.g. physical injury or any psychological effects e.g. lowered self esteem or embarrassment
  • Researchers p.o.v = Not possible to estimate harm before conducting study, but any study can be stopped if harm is apparent
32
Q

Ethical issues

Confidentiality (and anonymity)

A
  • Right to have personal information protected
  • Data Protection Act makes confidentiality a legal right
  • Researchers p.o.v = May not able to keep information confidential because details of the study lead to individual’s identification
33
Q

Ethical issues

Privacy

A
  • Right to control the flow of information about themselves
  • Researchers p.o.v = Can be difficult e.g. convert observation
  • If privacy is invaded, confidentiality needs to be protected
34
Q

Solve ethical issues

Debriefing

A
  • Post research interview designed to inform participants about the true nature of a study
  • Aims to restore participants to the state they were in before the study
  • May be used to gain feedback on study procedure
35
Q

Solve ethical issues

Ethical guidelines

A
  • Concrete, quasi-legal documents that help to conduct within psychology
  • Establish principles for standard practice and competence
  • Published by professional organisations e.g. the Code of Conduct by the BPS
36
Q

Solve ethical issues

Ethical commitee

A

Also called INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB)

  • Group of people within research institution that must approve a study before it begins
  • Weighs up costs and benefits
37
Q

Solve ethical issues

Presumptive consent

A
  • Method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception
  • Asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in a study
38
Q

Solve ethical issues (4)

A
  • Debriefing
  • Ethical guidelines
  • Ethical committee
  • Presumtive
39
Q

5 ways to select samples of participants

A
  • Opportunity sample
  • Random sample
  • Stratified and quota sample
  • Systematic sample
  • Volunteer sample
40
Q

Opportunity sample

+/- ve

A

Sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study

+ Easiest method. You just choose whoever and there’s no rule

  • Inevitably biased since the sample is drawn from a small part of the target population
41
Q

Random sample

+/- ve

A

Sample of participants produced using a random technique such that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

+ Unbiased

  • Researcher may end up with an unrepresentative and therefore biased sample because not everyone agrees to participate
42
Q

Stratified and quota sample

+/- ve

A

Group of participants are selected according to their frequency in the population

+ More representative than an opportunity sample as there is equal representation of subgroups

  • Samples of subgroups can be taken biased in other ways e.g if you use opportunity sampling you only have access to certain areas of the target population
43
Q

Systematic sample

+/- ve

A

Method of obtaining a representative sample by selecting every 5th or 10th person

+ Unbiased. Participants are selected based on an objective system

  • Not truly random unless you select a number using a random method and start with the person then you select the rest of the people
44
Q

Volunteer sample

+/- ve

A

Sample of participants produced by asking for volunteers

+ Access to a variety of participants

  • Sample is biased
45
Q

Correlation? (4)

A
  • ZERO CORRELATION = co-variables are not linked at all
  • POSITIVE CORRELATION = Co-variables increase together
  • NEGATIVE CORRELATION = One increase, one decrease
  • CORRELATION COEFFICIENT = A number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlational analysis are related
46
Q

Measures of central tendancy

A

Inform us the average

  • Mean
  • Mode
  • Median
47
Q

Measures of dispersion

A

Informs us the spread

  • Range
  • Standard deviation

Psychology (6 decks)

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