Unit 1 - Introducing Ethics in Science and Technology Flashcards
What ethical issues does Franklin say are associated with technological practices?
Franklin looks at technology as practice. He argues that technology can identify people and give them their own definition, it can identifies and limits the content of what is permissible. Prescriptive technologies in social terms are designs for compliance and is the most important link for the relationship between society, culture, and technology.
Todays technology is dominated by prescriptive technologies and although they are exceedingly efficient they create a culture of compliance.
Additionally, there is a urge to apply prescriptive technology to everything even though some things would be better done in a holistic way, such as things that require caring either for nature or people, or tasks that require immediate feedback and adjustment. Prescriptive technologies also eliminate the occasions for judgement and decision making in general
Technology has changed scale from a growth model to a productive model. Where the previous model always had an implicit understanding that growth was respective to functional entities and that growth occured and all that can be done is the generation of an optimum enviroment. Production models make rather then grow Everything can and shall be calculated within a production model. This model fails to consider externalities irrelevant to growth such as the environment, others mental health, and other things non-related to results.
Give examples that are different from the ones mentioned by Franklin of “work-related” and “control-related” technologies, and of “holistic” and “prescriptive” technologies.
Work-related technologies: Make the actual practice easier i.e. using microsoft word to write an essay rather than a permanent pen
Control-related technologies: Do not primarily address the process of work with the aim of making it easier, but try to increase control over the operation i.e. the hierarchy system in the millitary that works to distribute authority, responsibility, and work throughout the ranks
Holistic technologies: Are normally associated with the notion of craft, leaves the does in total control of the process i.e. building your own bookshelf
Prescriptive technologies: The making and doing of something into clearly identifiable steps. Each step is carried out by a separate worker or group of workers who only need to be familiar with the skills required for their own step i.e. the assembly line Henry Ford developed to assign simple jobs in each step of creating a car.
What ethical values are involved in scientific research, according to On Being a Scientist, and what is a “scientific standard”? How do scientific standards help to resolve ethical issues in data collection and conflict of commitment?
It is argued that some of the ethical values involved in scientific research can be understood as
1. An obligation to honor the trust placed in them by colleagues
2. Obligation to themselves for maintaining a reputation
3. And a obligation to serve the public
Additionally, scientists should be mindful of conflicting interests both of their own and those funding the research
A scientific standard ensures methods and data are accurate and do not mislead others, thereby ruining reputations and sacrificing their authority.
Papers must provide description of their methods and procedures to produce the data is available. Additionally, scientists are usually screened for conflicting interests to ensure that their data will not be skewed by alternative motives and that other interests would not pressure a preffered result. The standards promote transparency in data collection and work to avoid comprosing objective data from other conflicting interests.
According to Stevenson, what are the three senses in which scientific practice is often considered to be “value-neutral”?
- A distinction is made from pure science and applied science. Science offers us objective knowledge of how the world works, but there can be no objective knowledge of whether we should make any particular interventions i.e. values is merely a individual subjective opinion
- The only value recognized by scientists is the value of knowledge for knowledges sake.
- Applications of scientific knowledge is for society to decide or some sort of democratic process.
What reasons does Stevenson provide to argue that science is not “value-neutral”? Do you agree with Stevenson? Why or why not?
- There is no such thing as society deciding. Only decisions of various institutions: government, companies, university’s, etc. Argues for how science which is funded by the people could ever be controlled democratically despite its influence on the people. Some research is conucted in secrecy i.e. millitary and corporate. The resources needed for modern research gives it momentum of its own and is not easily intervened with. Science is not easily accessible due to its technical nature and is usually “molded” for the public through marketers or spokespeople.
- Scientists have reputation to upheld, proffesionall advancement to consider, and monetary and social reward to gain by social forces outside the scientist. Modern science requires massive resources that require hard decision to be made into what should be researched i.e. increasing demand on resources requires more stringent values to be assigned to research and greater priority on maintaining a reputation to gain such resources. Granting institutions increasingly influence values of research.
- The argument that no objective standard can be given to application of science suggests that there are crucial principle differences governing ethics and science.
The unique objectivity of science may be rejected ; Either science does not have the objectivity currently attributed to it or ethics may be able to attain an objectivity close to science
Briefly summarize the critiques of science by Feyerebend, Marcuse, and Rifkin that are discussed by Stevenson. Why does Stevenson find these critiques interesting but unsatisfactory?
Feyerebend: Adopts a radically positivistic review, arguing that science is just one tradition among others such as a relgious or political world-view. These traditions cannot be rationally compared for truth since all such judgements about truth or rationality can only be made from inside such a tradition. Argues for political relativism, where all traditions are given equal rights, access to education, and positions of power and would require a separation between science and state.
Stevenson responds that if we must compare rival theories within a tradition and the impossibility of comparing traditions themselves we must have a strict definition for what a tradition is. When is a change of concepts and beliefs a change within a tradition and when is it a change of tradition?
Marcuse: The way in which scientific-technical rationality and manipulation are welded together is not just the result of a specific social application of science, but is inherently pure in science. Arguing that the goal of science to instrumentalize and control nature will continue and has already inevitably controlled man, however science could change by keeping its rational character and use an experimentl context of a pacified world and would arrive at different concepts and establish different facts.
Stevenson responds that Marcuse must specify what this way of a non-domineering science would look like so a real alternative could even be considered
Rifkin: We must rethink our basic assumptions of the pursuit of knowledge ( not just our technology and economic systems) and that it is possible for the mind to think in a radically different way. Instead of seeking knowledge for power and control we could just as well seek it for empathy and participation.
Stevenson responds that Rifkin does not whether he has in mind a different epistemology of science or just a different kind of motivation for pursuing and applying scientific knowledge as standardly understood.
