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Clinical Neuroscience > Unit 1: Intro, History, & Cells > Flashcards

Unit 1: Intro, History, & Cells Flashcards

1
Q

Human Connectome Project

A

Initiative to map neural connections in the brain. Static map.

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2
Q

BAM - Brain Activity Map

A

Functional map of brain (while active)

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3
Q

Brain disorders

A

Schizophrenia, Depression, Anxiety, Addiction, AD, PD, MS, Stroke, Epilepsy, etc.

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4
Q

Historical foundation provided in Koch article

A

Summarized humanity’s progression as philosophers and scientists of the mind and brain.

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5
Q

Aristotle

A

Soul: nature of living thing. Vegetative, sensitive, and rational (humans).

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6
Q

What big leap in the study of brain/mind occurred during the Enlightenment?

A

The idea of the rational soul as a physical, biological object. Gave rise to fields of psychology, neurology, and psychiatry.

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7
Q

Descarte’s dualism

A

Explained natural world mechanistically, but believed the mind (nonphysical) and the brain (physical) were separate entities.

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8
Q

Hobbes

A

Matter can think

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9
Q

John Locke

A

Idea of soul similar to modern mind; a subjective experience that arises from outside stimuli and experiences. Notion that our ideas and knowledge are not innate.

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10
Q

In the end of the 17th c., the idea of the mind as part of nature was important because

A

Mind is fallible and can become ill. Religious explanations and treatments -> clinical ones. (Before, the sickness of the “rational soul” was seen as possession or witchcraft.)

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11
Q

Who was Franz Joseph Gall?

A

A physician of the mid 19th c. Did many dissections and concluded that the brain is the sole organ of the mind, and is composed of different parts with different functions, and that varying sizes of these parts explains individual differences.

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12
Q

Why was Gall right but wrong?

A

His attention to localization of function was correct, but phrenology is not.

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13
Q

Who else contributed to the idea of localization of function?

A

Broca (mid 19th c.) had patient with damage to specific area in brain after stroke and could not speak

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14
Q

What and where is Broca’s area?

A

Left interior frontal gyrus; responsible for production of speech.

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15
Q

What role did Darwin play?

A

Evolution and theory of natural selection suggested that the mind may have evolved from the minds of our nonhuman ancestors, and is an extension of the minds of other animals.
Humans are not the only ones with minds and consciousness.

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16
Q

Koch article

A

Provided historical foundation of the mind/brain “problem.” Grappled with historical and present understandings of consciousness and the mind

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17
Q

Trepanation/Trephining

A

Fossil evidence of humans connecting the head with the mind and behavior, ~10,000 ya ->17th c.
Holes drilled into skull to treat disorders caused by “evil spirits in the head.” People survived this procedure (healing evidence.)

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18
Q

What is the point of modern day trepanation

A

Supposedly to improve mental functioning by increasing blood flow. “Effects” caused by placebo and gratitude for surviving, nothing more.
Different than in medicine: craniotomy, to release pressure from the brain.

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19
Q

Papyri records list…

A

disorders (many of the brain) and medications (emetics and purgatives)

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20
Q

The priest/physician Imhotep had a religious view of the brain

A

Prayer to treat illness, as well as more scientific procedures.

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21
Q

Egyptian hieroglyph phrase for brain literally translates to

A

Marrow inside the head

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22
Q

Egyptian hieroglyph phrase for brain literally translates to

A

Marrow inside the head

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23
Q

What are the inconsistencies of ancient Egyptian culture regarding the brain?

A

Buried all organs in vessels, except scooped out the brain and discarded.

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24
Q

Where did some other cultures think was the location of the mind?

A

Stomach, larynx, heart

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25
Q

Historically there are three prevailing views regarding

A

the location of the mind

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26
Q

Cardiocentric view

A

Mind in the heart. Believed by Aristotle.

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27
Q

Encephalocentric view

A

Mind in head/brain. Believed by Plato for the wrong reasons (cosmology) and Hippocrates (a Monist)

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28
Q

Ventricular view

A

Mind in the ventricles of the brain. Brain matter was a vessel only. Different ventricles had different functions.

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29
Q

What are brain ventricles

A

Compartments filled with CSF

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30
Q

Who was Galen of Rome and what view did he hold regarding the location of the mind?

A

A gladiator physician, believed the mind was everywhere in the body. This view was influential until the 17th c.

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31
Q

Who was Descartes?

A

17th c mathematician and philospher who sought to explicate a unified theory of the mind and brain.

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32
Q

What did Descartes believe?

A

That only humans had a mind, which existed in a spiritual, nonphysical realm and was separate from the physical machine of the body (including the brain.)

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33
Q

How did Descartes believe the mind and brain/body were connected?

A

Descartes believed in Interactionism

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34
Q

Interactionism

A

Body and mind interact via the pineal gland

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35
Q

What is the opposing view to Descartes’ dualism?

A

Physical monism: the mind resulted from the function and activities of the brain. Ongoing debate.

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36
Q

Who was an early proponent for physical monism?

A

Willis, but people didn’t really pay attention. Then Crick, in 1994: The Astonishing Hypothesis

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37
Q

What is the opposite of physical monism?

A

Psychological monism: the world exists only in our minds and there is no physical reality.

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38
Q

What are some subcategories of pseudoneuroscience

A

neuromarketing and neuroeconomics (more legit)
neuropolitics
neuromusicology (more legit)
neuroaesthetics

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39
Q

How do we attempt to measure consciousness?

A

Measure changes in neural activity in response to stimuli

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40
Q

How has the brain evolved?

A

Increase in overall size
Increase in size of certain areas
Increase in complexity (more gyri, synapses, tissue, connections)
Increase in flexibility

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41
Q

What does it mean for our brain to be flexible?

A

There are ways for the brain to still function despite damage; it is adaptable.

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42
Q

What restricts our brain from being bigger?

A

Must be small enough to fit through the birth canal. Already requires 20% of fuel from blood.

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43
Q

What did Penfield do?

A

Performed awake brain surgery. Labeled areas of the brain based on what the output was when the area was stimulated.

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44
Q

Why is an analysis of systems important

A

The brain is not composed of a bunch of disconnected structures, but interconnections between structures. Sensory and motor systems.

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45
Q

Levels of Analysis

A

Molecular->synaptic->cellular->circuits->brain regions->organ system->social interaction

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46
Q

Reductionism

A

Explaining behavior in terms of smaller things (ions, atoms, molecules)

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47
Q

Generalization

A

Explain things from a big-picture perspective, paying attention to connections and systems, and how the brain and entire body interact

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48
Q

Which analysis levels/views are important in neuroscience?

A

Analysis from both a reuctionist and generalist perspective

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49
Q

Using animal models in neuroscience is important because it

A

Offers many opportunities for experiments and exploration, because we should not experiment on humans

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50
Q

Problems with animal models in neuroscience

A

Ethical guidelines

Can you generalize findings from mice and apply them to humans?

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51
Q

Epigenetics

A

Experiences and environment can change gene expression without altering one’s DNA

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52
Q

What was the “Decade of the Brain?”

A

1990s gov funding for research to treat neuro and psych disorders that cost US money and crime. Funding for mapping projects.

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53
Q

What is Neuroscience?

A

Study of the nervous system and its role in behavior etc

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54
Q

What is Biopsychology?

A

Study of the brain/behavior relationship. How and why do physiological brain mechanisms result in our behavior and experiences?

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55
Q

What is behavior?

A

Explicit, external acts as well as internal ones like thinking, emotions, and learning.

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56
Q

Monism definition of the mind

A

No entity of “the mind.” A constructed concept that includes our experiences that result from brain functions.

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57
Q

What is a model?

A

A proposed mechanism or explanation, or the use of a simple system to represent a complex one.

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58
Q

Descartes’ Hydraulic Model

A

Muscular function due to fluid inflating the muscles. “Animal spirits” flow through hollow nerves.
…flow through brain pores to cause thoughts and memories.
… Are pumped by the pineal gland.

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59
Q

What is empiricism?

A

Gathering of information through observation

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60
Q

Galvani and the frog leg

A

1700s: leg removed from body twitched when electrically stimulated.

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61
Q

Fritsch and Hitzig

A

electrically stimulated a dog’s brain to cause movement.

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62
Q

Helmholtz discovered

A

Nerves are not wires; the speed of conduction in nerves is much slower

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63
Q

Research today on localization of function

A

Brain functions are both distributed and localized, and behavior results from interactions between the parts but integrates into a single experience

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64
Q

What is the nature vs. nurture dilemma?

A

What is the relative importance of heredity and environment in shaping behavior?

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65
Q

What is the Human Genome Project?

A

Map the location of genes on chromosomes and determine those gene’s codes. Which genes are involved in what?

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66
Q

What makes neurons similar to other tissue cells?

A

Lipid bilayer cell membrane
Cytoplasm and organelles
Nucleus and genetic material

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67
Q

Important organelles in the neuron

A

Mitochondria
Microtubules
Rough ER and ribosomes

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68
Q

What are microtubules?

A

Rod-like structures in cytoplasm of soma and cell extensions that provide structure and support as well as transport substances throughout cell.

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69
Q

What disease are microtubules involved in?

A

Alzheimer’s Disease

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70
Q

What are the special parts of a neuron?

A

Soma (where info is integrated)
Dendrites (receive input from neurons or sensory cells)
Axon (carries AP, output)
Myelin (not all neurons; glial cell protects axon in segment with fatty coating)

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71
Q

What comes after the axon

A

The axon branches and terminal buttons

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72
Q

What happens at the terminal buttons

A

Release of chemical messengers via vesicles to neuron, muscle, or gland cells.

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73
Q

What glial cells provides myelin for the PNS?

A

Schwann cells

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74
Q

What glial cells provides myelin for the CNS?

A

Oligodendrocytes

75
Q

How are neurons visualized under a microscope?

A

Using stains: golgi stain only stains a portion of the neurons in an area

76
Q

Types of neurons

A

Sensory, motor, and interneurons

77
Q

Sensory neurons

A

carry sensory info to the CNS via cranial and spinal nerves

78
Q

Motor neurons

A

Carry info away from brain and spinal cord to muscle or gland

79
Q

Interneurons

A

Aka local interneuron. Connector neurons; entire neuron in CNS

80
Q

Projection neurons

A

Aka relay interneuron. Carry info long distances, across brain structures. E.g., cell body in thalamus and terminals in cortex.

81
Q

Commissural neurons

A

Link left and right hemispheres (e.g. corpus callossum)

82
Q

Why would one surgically cut the fiber bundle of the corpus callossum?

A

To treat some forms of epilepsy

83
Q

What % body weight is the brain? What % blood supply does it require?

A

2% of the body’s weight; 20% of the body’s blood supply

84
Q

What makes neurons unique?

A

They have variety in shapes, do not easily replicate after age 2, and do not store their own fuel

85
Q

How is fuel for neurons stored

A

Glial cells (astrocytes) store it for them

86
Q

Do neurons replicate?

A

Not after age two, except for adult stem cells in certain parts of the brain.

87
Q

When does a human have the most neurons?

A

In utero and after birth

88
Q

What happens to the neurons? What is “pruning?”

A

Programmed waves of apoptosis to clarify connections.

89
Q

When does a big wave of pruning occur

A

At the end of adolescence

90
Q

How much of the brain is glial cells?

A

85-90% of the cells in the brain are glial cells

91
Q

What functions to glial cells serve?

A

Support, maintenance and repair, metabolic functions, and assistance in the formation of synapses

92
Q

What NS disorders are associated with glial cells

A

MS, AD, PD, tumors (made of glial cells) and any NS injury

93
Q

What do glial cells do after a NS injury

A

May help regenerate area of damage, or form scar tissue

94
Q

What happens when human astrocytes are put into mouse brains?

A

Smarter mice!

95
Q

What do microglia do?

A

Phagocytosis; get rid of debris

96
Q

Oligodendroglia

A

Make myelin for the CNS

97
Q

What glia are part of the CNS support system?

A

Microglia, oligodendroglia, and astrocytes

98
Q

What do astrocytes do?

A 
Support and guidance: Form ladders that neurons use to get where they need to be during development
Phagocytosis: remove debris
Store nutrients
Part of filter for BBB
Synaptogenesis: learning and memory
99
Q

Gliosis

A

formation of scar tissue by glial cells; response to NS damage

100
Q

What is the Blood-Brain Barrier?

A

Don’t allow many substances to cross over from the bloodstream to the brain; capillary membrane to membrane of brain cells

101
Q

PNS support cells

A

Schwann cells

102
Q

Schwann cells

A

Make myelin for neurons in the PNS

103
Q

How does myelination by Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes differ?

A

Schwann cells wrap their whole cell body around the axon; oligodendrocytes have projections that extend from the cell body and wrap around axons

104
Q

What role do schwann cells play in damage of axons?

A

If part of the axon dies, Schwann cells stay in place and form regrowth tubes to guide axons back to targets

105
Q

Why doesn’t this kind of regrowth (through regrowth tubes) happen in the CNS?

A

In the CNS, scar tissue and chemical signals block regrowth

106
Q

What is gray matter?

A

Gray matter refers to neurons, the communicators of the NS

107
Q

What is white matter?

A

White matter refers to glial cells, the workhorses of the NS

108
Q

What is Multiple Sclerosis?

A

A demyelinating disease of the oligodendroglia in the CNS

109
Q

What is the primary neurological disorder of young adults?

A

Multiple Sclerosis

110
Q

What is characterstic of MS?

A

Symptoms are separated by time and place (different parts of the NS and body are affected)
MS plaques or Scleroses form (where cells have died)

111
Q

What are early signs of MS?

A

fatigue, optic neuritis, clumsiness, numbness, tingling, pain

112
Q

Do all people with MS show the same symptoms?

A

No, symptoms depends on where the lesions are. MS can also cause language, cognitive and emotional problems

113
Q

What is killing the oligodendrocytes?

A

The body’s immune cells are attacking the oligodendrocytes; it is an autoimmune process

114
Q

What are some possible causes of the autoimmune process of MS?

A 
A virus that attacks the BBB?
Genetics?
Exposure: Environment/diet?
Lack of sunlight/Vitamin D deficiency?
Toxins?
Hormones?
115
Q

What hormones might be involved in MS?

A

Melatonin (sleep wake cycle), investigating for use in treatment.
Estrogen - high levels during pregnancy-> remission hormone drop after birth -> symptoms

116
Q

What kinds of drugs are used to treat MS?

A

Immunosuppressives like corticosteroids and interferons which are also antiviral.
Some drugs anti-inflammatory to target the degenerative process.

117
Q

What are the cons of using corticosteroids?

A

Weakens immune system, many side effects, can’t be used for long periods of time

118
Q

What are Interferons

A

Injection drug for MS; immunosuppressive and antiviral

119
Q

What is Tysabri?

A

Controversial, anti-inflammatory drug used for MS. It is effective and can be used in early stages of the disease. But it can cause activation of a deadly virus in th ebrain.

120
Q

What determines symptoms of MS?

A

Which structures are affected by lesions

121
Q

Tecfidera

A

Anti-inflammatory
Anti-oxidant
Tasha took Tecfidera
Based on a different model of MS

122
Q

What are problems encountered regarding MS and treatment?

A

Injections are difficult.
Side effects, including those related to immune system suppression.
Disease is relapsing and remitting.

123
Q

What two common neurological disorders often occur in MS patients?

A

Anxiety and depression

124
Q

What are some ideas of possible future treatments for MS?

A

Stem cells -> replace dying cells w/ own cells

CAM (complimentary and alternative medicine) -> Diet

125
Q

What is provigil and why is it used in MS patients?

A

It is a stimulant, and used to treat fatigue.

126
Q

Who is the subject of the MS case study?

A

Natasha Gardner, journalist and Smith Grad Class of 2002

127
Q

What symptoms did Tasha have?

A

Vision abnormalities
Optic neuritis
Numbness, tingling, weakness -> afraid to pick up child
Motor delay/ lack of coordination -> softball incident
Fatigue
Slurring of speech
Pain

128
Q

What is significant about optic neuritis?

A

Characterized by a shooting pain in head when moving eye. Can be first symptom of Multiple Sclerosis.

129
Q

What were some of Tasha’s triggers (common MS triggers)

A

Hormones, stress, lack of sleep and heat.

130
Q

Signs of MS could have been present in Tasha earlier. What did they attribute them to instead?

A

Clumsiness, and “mind-tripping”; her mind always seemed to be ahead of her body.

131
Q

What are two types of transmission that neurons perform and how do they differ?

A

Action potential -> transmission within the neuron

Synaptitc transmission -> between neurons

132
Q

Why are there so many neural connections in the brain? How many are there?

A

There are trillions of neural connections in the brain, because each neuron receives and integrates inputs from thousands of neurons and sends output to thousands of neurons.

133
Q

What is convergence?

A

Many inputs integrated

134
Q

What is divergence?

A

Many outputs

135
Q

What is the beginning point of neural transmission?

A

Synaptic Integration: All the inputs to a neuron, both inhibitory and excitatory, are integrated into a single input that may lead to an AP if the excitation exceeds inhibition and passes threshold. (Dendrites, soma)

136
Q

What happens after synaptic integration if the local potential exceeds threshold?

A

Na+ channels open and stimulates axonal transmission of an AP (axon hillock to terminal buttons)

137
Q

What is synaptic transmission?

A

Transmission of information via NT between neurons

138
Q

What are the important ions involved in axonal transmission (AP)?

A

Na+, Cl-, K+

139
Q

What are the concentrations of ions across the axonal membrane at resting potential?

A

Na+ Cl- mostly outside the cell, K+ and other anions mostly inside the cell

140
Q

What is the membrane potential at rest (mV)?

A

~-70mV

141
Q

Is it more negative inside or outside the cell at resting potential?

A

The inside of the cell is more negative; the outside of the cell is more positive (due to more Na+ out than K+ in)

142
Q

What are the three forces that act on the membrane and determine AP?

A

Diffusion, electrostatic pressure, and membrane permeability.

143
Q

What is diffusion?

A

The movement of ions across membrane down their concentration gradient.

144
Q

What is membrane permeability?

A

The axon membrane is selectively permeable. Ions etc. must go through protein channels or pumps in the membrane.

145
Q

What is electrostatic pressure?

A

Forces of + and - attract; like forces repel.

146
Q

At rest, Na+ is __. It wants to __ because of what forces?

A

At rest, Na+ is outside the cell. It wants to go in the cell because of diffusion and electrostatic pressure (more - in cell.)

147
Q

At rest, K+ is ___. It wants to ___ because of what forces?

A

At rest, K+ is inside the cell. It wants to go out because of diffusion, but it wants to go/stay in because of electrostatic pressure.

148
Q

At rest, Cl- is ___. It wants to ___ because of what forces?

A

At rest, Cl- is outside the cell. It wants to go into the cell because of diffusion, but it wants to go/stay out of the cell because of electrostatic pressure.

149
Q

During rest, do the ions move across the membrane?

A

No, because the channels are closed.

150
Q

What happensacross the membrane during an AP?

A
  1. Na+ channels open, Na+ goes inside the cell.
  2. It is now more positive inside. (Depolarization)
  3. K+ channels open, K+ goes out of the cell
  4. Causes an undershoot
  5. Membrane potential returns to a resting state with help from the sodium-potassium pump.
151
Q

What are the rules of transmission?

A

Ion movement due to diffusion, electrostatic force, membrane permeability and pump.
All or none law.
Coding of signal strength
Myelin speeds transmission and saves energy

152
Q

What is the All or None law?

A

Either an AP is generated (if potential reaches threshold) or it is not. AP size remains the same. AP cannot carry info about the intensity of a stimulus.

153
Q

The strength/intensity of a signal is coded by

A

The number of firing neurons, or frequency of APs (rate law. Firing rate regulation by relative refractory period.)

154
Q

What organelles are numerous in the terminal buttons?

A

Vesicles and mitochondria.

155
Q

What is the neuron’s message?

A

The AP.

156
Q

APs are affected by drugs such as

A

alcohol, cocaine/local anesthetic.

157
Q

How does alcohol affect APs?

A

It destabilizes the membrane (changes rest state) by changing permability

158
Q

How does cocaine/local anesthetics affect AP?

A

By affecting membrane permeability. Lidocaine/Novocaine blocks transmission of AP and therefore pain signal.

159
Q

What neurological disorders are characterized by abnormal APs?

A

MS (due to demyelination) and seizure disorders

160
Q

What are three types of seizures?

A

Tonic Clonic/Grand mal seizures, Multifocal seizures, and Absence seizures (petit mal).

161
Q

What are the three phases of synaptic transmission?

A

Presynaptic, Postsynaptic events, and Termination

162
Q

What happens in the presynaptic cell?

A
  1. AP arrives at terminal buttons
  2. Ca2+ into cell
  3. Vesicles move to membrane, dock, and open from fusion pore
  4. Exocytosis of NT into cleft
163
Q

What happens in the postsynaptic cell (simple way)?

A

NT attach to receptors on membrane to open ion channels directly, fast, and locally.
Produces EPSPs and IPSPs.

164
Q

In the simple secondary phase (ionotropic receptors), effects act

A

Directly, fast, and locally

165
Q

Alternative postsynaptic events using G-proteins

A

Involve metabotropic receptors. More common.

  1. NT act on receptors, which activate G-proteins and many postsynaptic molecules to yield
  2. Changes in postsynaptic cell
166
Q

In the Metabotropic/G-protein secondary phase, effects act

A

indirectly, slow, and long lasting

167
Q

How is synaptic transmission terminated?

A
  1. Diffusion of NT
  2. Degradation by enzymes
  3. Reuptake into terminal button via pumps or transporters
  4. Glial uptake (astrocytes)
168
Q

What happens to ACh in the synaptic cleft?

A

Mostly degraded

169
Q

What are some classes of NT?

A

Animo acid NT - most plentiful
Monoamins
Neuropeptides

170
Q

2 common amino acid NT

A

Glutamate: excitatory, brain
GABA: inhibitory, brain

171
Q

Monoamines

A

Dopamine, norepinephrine, seratonin

172
Q

ACh

A

works in the NMJ, ANS (fight or flight) and in the brain (learning, memory)

173
Q

Neuropeptide example

A

Endogenous opiate. Manage pain. Maintains addictive behavior.

174
Q

Dopamine is involved in

A

reward (addiction) motor and attention circiuts

175
Q

Norepinephrine is involved in

A

brain, ANS (fight or flight)

176
Q

Where is seratonin in the body?

A

1% in brain, 10% blood, rest in gut

177
Q

What is the fight or flight response?

A

Major activation of the autonomic nervous system

178
Q

How does nicotine affect synaptic transmission?

A

Acts like ACh at receptors in brain, ANS and muscles. Indirectly at dopamine receptor - > reward and addiction

179
Q

How does Ecstacy/MDMA affect synaptic transmission?

A

Acts at pump for seratonin - long term might destroy?

180
Q

ACh role

A

motor function, learning/memory, REM, Autonomic Nervous System

181
Q

What disorders involve ACh

A

Alzheimer’s Disease, MG (Myasthenia Gravis) (-)

182
Q

What drugs involve ACh

A

Nicotine (+)

183
Q

What is an Action Potential?

A

An excitatory signal that moves down the neuron’s axon and dendrites; caused by a change in the cell’s membrane potential.

184
Q

State three core concepts of Neuroscience

A
  1. The brain is the most complex organ in the body.
  2. Life experiences change the nervous system.
  3. Neurons communicate using both electrical and chemical signals.

Clinical Neuroscience (2 decks)

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