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BIO 100 General Biology > Unit 1: Ch 1 & 2 > Flashcards

Unit 1: Ch 1 & 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

List the 25

essential elements

A
  1. Oxygen
  2. Carbon
  3. Hydrogen
  4. Nitrogen
  5. Phosphorus
  6. Calcium
  7. Potassium
  8. Sulfur
  9. Sodium
  10. Chlorine
  11. Magnesium
  12. Fluorine
  13. Iodine
  14. Iron
  15. Manganese
  16. Boron
  17. Chromium
  18. Cobalt
  19. Copper
  20. Molybdenum
  21. Selenium
  22. Silicon
  23. Tin
  24. Vanadium
  25. Zinc
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2
Q

List the 4 compounds that make 96%

of the bodyweight of living things

A
  1. Carbon (C)
  2. Oxygen (O)
  3. Hydrogen (H)
  4. Nitrogen (N)
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3
Q

Ability to adapt

A
  • Adapt means they are suited to a certain way of life or suited to a certain environment.
  • These adaptations are produced by the process of evolution
  • Adaptations that result in higher reproductive success tend to increase in frequency in a population from one generation to the next. This change in the frequency of traits in populations and species is called evolution
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4
Q

Amino Acids

  • Structure
  • Groups
  • Bonding
A
  • Structure:
    • Contains a central C atom, an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), and a specific R group
  • Groups
    • Amino Group
    • Acidic Group
    • R Group
      • The R group determines the characteristics (size, polarity, and pH) for each type of amino acid.
  • Peptide bonds form between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another through dehydration synthesis
  • A chain of amino acids is a polypeptide
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5
Q

Amino Group

  • Symbol
  • Bonds
  • Occurs in
A

Symbol: -NH2

Bonds: Single covalent bonds

Occurs in: Amino acids, proteins

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6
Q

Animals

A
  • Multicelled
  • Obtain energy and materials by ingesting food
  • Examples: insects, birds, and humans
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7
Q

Archaea

A
  • Single-celled
  • The most primitive living things
  • Live in harsh aquatic environments
    • High temperature
    • No oxygen
    • High salt content
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8
Q

Atom

A
  • The least complex level begins with the atom
  • An atom is the smallest unit of matter that forms a chemical element
  • At the center of an atom is its nucleus, which is composed of protons and neutrons
  • An atom is electrically neutral which means the number of protons (positive charges) equals the number of electrons (negative charges)
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9
Q

Atomic mass

(aka atomic mass number)

A
  • Equal to the sum of the protons and neutrons
  • The weight of the atom
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10
Q

Atomic number

A

It is the number of protons in an atom

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11
Q

ATP

A
  • Nucleotide that occurs in muscle tissue
  • Is used as a source of energy in cellular reactions and in the synthesis of nucleic acids
  • Cells couple the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis with endergonic reactions to harness the energy within the bonds of ATP

Key Points

  • Adenosine triphosphate is composed of the nitrogenous base adenine, the five-carbon sugar ribose, and three phosphate groups.
  • ADP is combined with a phosphate to form ATP in the reaction ADP+Pi+free energy→ATP+H2O.
  • The energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP is used to perform cellular work, usually by coupling the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis with endergonic reactions.
  • Sodium-potassium pumps use the energy derived from exergonic ATP hydrolysis to pump sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane while phosphorylation drives the endergonic reaction.
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12
Q

Bacteria

A
  • Single-celled
  • Live everywhere on the planet except in harsh environments
  • Are primitive, but not as primitive as Archaea
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13
Q

Compare Biological Macromolecules

A
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14
Q

List the 12 Levels of

Biological Organization

A
  1. Biosphere
  2. Ecosystem
  3. Community
  4. Population
  5. Species
  6. Organism
  7. Organ System
  8. Organ
  9. Tissue
  10. Cell
  11. Molecule
  12. Atom
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15
Q

Describe the biosphere

A

Regions of the earth’s crust, waters, and atmosphere inhabited by living organisms

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16
Q

What is a buffer?

A
  • A buffer is a substance that keeps pH within normal limits
  • Buffers resist pH changes because they can take up excess hydrogen ions (H+) or hydroxide ions (OH-)
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17
Q

Describe the polymers in carbohydrates

A
  1. Glycogen: found liver & muscle of mammals. Functions as an energy store. It is short term store store of energy. Made of glucose monomers. When body needs glucose, glycogen in liver is broken down into its glucose monomers; the glucose enters the blood for cells to use. When muscles need glucose (such as when you are exercising), the glycogen inside the muscle is broken down into its glucose monomer and the glucose is used to make energy inside the muscle cell
  2. Starch: found in roots & seeds of plants. Potatoes are an example of a root vegetable that is high in starch. Functions as an energy store (just like with glycogen in animals, when a plant needs glucose for energy, it breaks down glycogen). In plants, glycogen is a long term energy store. Glycogen is made of glucose monomers
  3. Cellulose: found in (a) the cell wall of plants and found in (b) the bark & stem regions of the plants. Functions to provide structural (physical) support for the plant cell and for the body of the plant. The cell wall protects the plant cell. The stem of a plant allows the plant to stand upright & it connects leaves to the plant. The bark protects the inner tissues of the tree (just like your bones organs in your body)
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18
Q

Carboxyl Group

  • Symbol
  • Bonds
  • Occurs in
A

Symbol: -COOH

Bonds: Single covalent bonds

Occurs in: Sugars, amino acids, proteins

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19
Q

Describe the following characteristics of carbohydrates:

  • Monomers
  • Polymers
  • Elements
  • Structure
  • Function
A
  • Monomer: Monosaccharide
    • Glucose (blood of mammals)
    • Galactose (milk of mammals)
    • Fructose (plants)
  • Polymer: Polysaccharides
    • Glycogen
    • Starch
    • Cellulose
  • Elements: C, H, O
  • Structure:
    • H to O ratio is 2:1
    • The number of carbons usually ranges from 3-7
    • Depending on the number of carbons in the sugar, they also may be known as trioses (3 carbons), pentoses (5 carbons), and or hexoses (6 carbons)
    • Monosaccharides can exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions, they are usually found in ring forms
  • Function
    • Source of energy
    • Structural/physical support
    • Cell-to-cell recognition
    • Cell identification: allows the immune system to recognize/distinguish cells
    • Forms part of DNA & RNA
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20
Q

List the 8 categories of classification

A
  1. Domain (largest)
  2. Kingdom
  3. Phylum
  4. Class
  5. Order
  6. Family
  7. Genus
  8. Species (smallest)
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21
Q

Cell Theory

A

All organisms are composed of cells,

and new cells only come from pre-existing cells

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22
Q

Cells

A
  • When two or more organelles with a common structure and function join
  • Living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells, and all living structures must have cells
  • A cell is the smallest unit that can perform all the basic functions of life
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23
Q

Cellulose

A
  • The bonds that hold the glucose molecules together
  • They are sturdy and allow fibers to form and build tough cell walls
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24
Q

Central Science

A
  • Chemistry is often called the “central science” because all areas of science rely on some chemical principles.
  • Every scientific area from physics to astronomy to ecology/environmental to physical therapy relies on chemistry.
  • You need to learn chemistry because chemicals and chemical reactions are part of living things.
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25
Q

Apply the characteristics of life to answer this question:

Is a cut flower living or non-living?

A

For the cut flower to be considered alive, it must meet each of the following characteristics:

  1. Order- Living things are organized into discrete structures that are called cells. Yes, the cut flower has cells.
  2. Require energy and materials- Living things require an outside source of energy and materials to maintain their organization. Cells use energy from nutrients. Yes, the cut flower is able to take in an outside source (i.e., sun, water) to maintain its organization (for a short period of time)
  3. Reproduce- Living things are able to form new cells within their body. No, the cut flower will not be able to reproduce. Being that it is cut, it does not have its root structure which contributes to other characteristics required to be considered alive.
  4. Develop- Living things are able to grow during their lifetime. The cut flower may continue developing for a short period of time (i.e. a petal may unfurl), but once the flower is cut away from its root structure it begins to die
  5. Respond to stimuli- Respond to stimuli, which is an environmental change. Yes, for the time that the cut flower is able to absorb energy, it will be able to respond to stimuli
  6. Are Homeostatic- Able to maintain stable internal conditions even when external conditions are changing. No, since it no longer has its root structure, it cannot be Homeostatic
  7. Evolution- Living things have the ability to adapt to a certain environment. The cut flower cannot adapt to its new environment. It no longer has its root structure and it has begun dying. It will ultimately die.

Since the cut flower does not meet each characteristic of life it is not considered to be alive.

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26
Q

List the 7 Characteristics of Life

A

To be alive, an object must have all of these characteristics. If it lacks just one of them, it is not considered alive.

  1. Order
  2. Require Energy & Materials
  3. Reproduce
  4. Develop
  5. Respond to Stimuli
  6. Are Homeostatic
  7. Evolution
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27
Q

Chemical bond

A
  • An attraction between atoms
  • The attraction holds atoms together to form molecules and compounds
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28
Q

Chemical bond

A
  • An attraction between atoms
  • Holds atoms together to form molecules and compounds
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29
Q

Chemical compound

A
  • Atoms containing two or more elements
  • Examples: H2O, NaCl, and CO2
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30
Q

Chemical formula

A

An abbreviation of the elements and atoms present in a molecule

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31
Q

Chemical Formula

A
  • The chemical formula is an abbreviation for the molecule
  • Tells us two facts about the molecule:
    • The elements present
    • The atoms of each element
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32
Q

Describe a community

A

Interacting populations in a particular area

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33
Q

Compound

A
  • When two or more elements bond together
  • Example: H2O
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34
Q

Conclusion

A

The data is analyzed to determine if the hypothesis was correct.

  • Often times, the conclusion leads to another hypothesis and another round of the scientific method
  • Based on the results of many experiments using the scientific method, a scientific theory is developed
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35
Q

Control Group

A
  • Part of an experiment that is not subject to the independent variable controlled by the researcher
  • 2 types of controls
    • Negative Control: expected to have a negative result (no change occurs to them)
    • Positive Control: expected to have a positive result
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36
Q

Covalent Bonds

A
  • Forms when atoms share one to three pairs of electrons
  • The most common type of bond found in nature
  • Covalent bonds can be single, double or triple
  • Two types of covalent bonds: polar and nonpolar
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37
Q

Deductive Reasoning

A
  • The use of general principles to predict specific outcomes
  • Often uses “if…then” statements
  • Moves from general premises to a specific conclusion
  • Examples:
    • All numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5. The number 35 ends with a 5, so it must be divisible by 5
    • All birds have feathers. All robins are birds. Therefore, robins have feathers.
    • Since today is Friday, tomorrow will be Saturday
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38
Q

Dehydration Reaction

A

A chemical reaction in which two molecules are covalently linked in a reaction that generates H2O as a second product

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39
Q

Dehydration Synthesis

A
  • When monomers join to create polymers of organic molecules
  • Hydrogen is removed from one monomer and a hydroxyl group (-OH) is removed from another monomer, forming water
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40
Q

Explain denature

A
  • When a protein is denatured, its shape and properties change, and it usually cannot function anymore
  • Proteins can be denatured by exposing them to pH changes (acids or bases) or by exposing them to extreme temperatures (either hot or cold)
  • Example: Frying an egg. Egg white starts out as clear and liquid, the extreme heat changes the egg white to opaque and a rigid texture
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41
Q

Develop

A

Changes that occur during an organism’s lifetime

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42
Q

Distinguish between the different

Disaccharides

A
  1. Maltose: Glucose + Glucose
    • Found in grain plants like wheat & barley and products like beer & malted milk which are made from grains
  2. Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose
    • Found in plants especially sugar cane & sugar beets. Sucrose is known as “table sugar” and is used to sweeten foods and beverages
  3. Lactose: Glucose + Galactose
    • Found in milk of mammals. Lactose is known as milk sugar
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43
Q

DNA

A
  • Provides the instructions for the organization and metabolism of an organism
  • Functions as the hereditary material of all living things
  • Located in the nucleus of a cell
  • Double-stranded helix
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44
Q

What is the monosaccharide in DNA?

A

Deoxyribose

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45
Q

Domain

A

Domain is the largest category and contains the most members

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46
Q

List the 3 domains of living things

A
  1. Archaea
  2. Bacteria
  3. Eukarya
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47
Q

Double-blind study

A

When neither the researcher or test subject knows whether they are receiving a placebo or treatment

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48
Q

Describe ecosystem

A

A community plus its physical environment

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49
Q

Electron

A
  • Determines the chemical properties of an atom
  • Found on the periphery, or on the side of an atomic structure
    • Electron shell, which is a more specific way to determine where an electron is housed; or
    • Electron cloud, which is a more general way of showing where an electron is
  • Carry a single negative charge
  • Notated with a lowercase “e”
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50
Q

Electron Shell

A

Indicates the average location of electrons

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51
Q

Electron shell

A
  • Electrons are located in electron shells that surround an atom
  • The number of electron shells an atom has depends on the total number of electrons
  • Each shell holds a limited number of electrons:
    • Shell 1 holds 2 electrons
    • Shell 2 holds 8 electrons
    • Shell 3 holds 8 electrons
    • Shell 4 holds 8 electrons
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52
Q

Electronegativity

A

A measure of an atom’s ability to attract the shared electrons of a covalent bond to itself.

If atoms bonded together have the same electronegativity, the shared electrons will be equally shared and will become anions.

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53
Q

Electropositivity

A

The tendency of an atom to donate electrons and form positively charged cations

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54
Q

Element

A
  • An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into smaller substances with different properties by ordinary chemical means
  • Each element has its own unique properties such as density, solubility, melting point, and chemical reactivity
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55
Q

What is an emulsifier?

A
  • Contains molecules with a nonpolar end and a polar end, and results in fat or oil dispersing in water
  • Examples:
    • The detergent used to wash clothes
    • Creamy salad dressing
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56
Q

Endergonic Reaction

A

An endergonic reaction is a reaction in which energy is absorbed.

This means that the net change in free energy is positive. There is more energy in the system at the end of the reaction than at the beginning of it.

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57
Q

Energy & Materials

A

Living things take in molecules from the environment and chemically change them into molecules that form their own structures, control their physiology, or provide them with energy

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58
Q

Enzymes

A
  • A group of proteins that lower the amount of energy required to perform a chemical reaction
  • Enzymes are not consumed in a chemical reaction
  • Without enzymes, our reactions would take too long to support life
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59
Q

Essential Elements

A

The 25 elements that are necessary for life

60
Q

Eukarya

A
  • Include both single-celled and multi-celled
  • Four kingdoms of Eukarya:
    1. Protists
    2. Fungi
    3. Plants
    4. Animals
61
Q

Evolution

A
  • Changes occurring in a population of living things over time
  • Evolution explains both the unity and diversity of life
  • Example
    • For some organisms, like bacteria, evolution can occur in a matter of decades. For most other organisms, evolution takes place over a much longer time frame which is millions of year
62
Q

Evolution Theory

A

All living things have a common ancestor, but each is adapted to a particular way of life

63
Q

Exergonic Reaction

A

A reaction that releases free energy.

Because this type of reaction releases energy rather than consuming it, it can occur spontaneously, without being forced by outside factors.

In chemistry terms, exergonic reactions are reactions where the change in free energy is negative.

64
Q

Experiment

A
  • An experiment is performed to test the hypothesis
  • A prediction is made based on the hypothesis. Deductive reasoning is used to make the prediction
    • In deductive reasoning, facts are used to arrive at the conclusion. Deductive reasoning can also be thought of as “if…then” reasoning
65
Q

Experimental (Independent) Variable

A
  • The factor that the researcher manipulates while conducting an experiment
  • Charted on the x-axis
  • Example: Amount of sunlight exposure
66
Q

What is the structure of fatty acids?

What are the types of fatty acids?

A
  • Structure:
    • Hydrocarbon chain
    • Ends with the acidic group -COOH
  • Types:
    1. Saturated fatty acids
      • Have single bonds
      • The carbon chain is saturated with all the hydrogens it can hold
      • Account for the solid state at room temperature of fats such as lard and butter
    2. Unsaturated fatty acids
      • Double bonds between carbon atoms wherever the number of hydrogens is less than 2 per carbon atom
      • This produces a bend in the fatty acid chain.
      • Account for the liquid nature of vegetable oils at room temperature.
      • Often referred to as being “cis” or “trans”, which refers to the configuration of the hydrogen atoms in the double bond
67
Q

What is a functional group?

A

A specific combination of bonded atoms that always has the same chemical properties and therefore always reacts in the same way

68
Q

List the 5 functional groups

A
  1. Hydroxyl
  2. Methyl
  3. Carboxyl
  4. Amino
  5. Phosphate
69
Q

Functional proteins

A

Performs the jobs for organisms

70
Q

Fungi

A
  • Single or multicelled organisms
  • Obtain energy and materials by directly absorbing them from their environment
  • Examples: Mushrooms, mold, and yeast
71
Q

Gene Theory

A

Organisms contain coded information that dictates their form, function, and behavior

72
Q

Glucose

A
  • A monosaccharide with a molecular formula of C6H12O6
  • It is a principal source of energy for cellular metabolism
73
Q

Homeostasis Theory

A

The internal environment of an organism stays relatively constant;

within a range that is protective of life

74
Q

Homeostatic

A
  • The body’s ability to maintain stable internal conditions even when external conditions are changing
  • Example:
    • Body temperature: can maintain internal body temperature even if it is hotter outside (as in the summer) or colder outside (as in winter)
75
Q

Hydrogen Bond

A
  • When an H atom is attracted to an electronegative atom
  • Very weak bond
  • Hydrogen bonds do not form molecules but stabilize the three-dimensional shape of molecules
  • Makes water cohesive and adhesive
76
Q

Hydrolysis Reaction

A
  • Occurs when the monomers in a polymer separate during a hydrolysis reaction (addition of H2O)
  • The polymer is broken into two components: one part gains a hydrogen atom (H+) and the other gains a hydroxyl molecule (OH–) from a split water molecule
  • Degrades polymers
77
Q

Differentiate between

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic

A
  • Hydrophilic molecules get absorbed or dissolved in water, while hydrophobic molecules only dissolve in oil-based substances.
  • Hydrophilic molecules are polar and hydrophobic molecules are non-polar
78
Q

Hydroxl Group

  • Symbol
  • Bonds
  • Occurs in
A

Symbol: -OH

Bonds: Single covalent bond

Occurs in: Sugars, alcohol

79
Q

Hypothesis

A
  • A possible explanation for why something occurs
  • Formulated using inductive reasoning which means to use patterns to arrive at the conclusion
  • An informed statement that can be tested in a manner suited to the processes of science
80
Q

Inductive Reasoning

A
  • Using specific observations and the process of logic and reasoning to arrive at general scientific principles
  • Examples:
    • Every time you eat peanuts, you start to cough. You are allergic to peanuts.
    • Every chicken we’ve seen has been brown. All chickens in this area must be brown.
    • Since it snowed every New Year’s Day for the past four years it will snow on New Year’s Day this year
81
Q

Ionic Bond

A
  • Form when an atom gives up electron(s)
  • The atom now has more protons than electrons, so it becomes positively charged (cation)
  • The receiving atom now has more electrons than it has protons, so the atom becomes negatively charged (anion)
  • Since the cation and anion have opposite charges, they are “attracted” to each other; this attraction is the ionic bond
82
Q

Isomer

A

Two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but with different structures/shapes

83
Q

Isotope

A

Two or more elements that are chemically similar (same number of protons), but different weights (different number of neutrons)

84
Q

How are the levels of organization formed?

A
  • Life is organized in a hierarchy of levels, meaning that two structures with a common form and structure must join to create a higher level within the organization
  • Any level jeopardized will affect all superior levels within the hierarchy
85
Q

Describe the following characteristics of lipids:

  • Elements
  • Types
  • Function
A
  • Elements: C, H, O (and P when it is a phospholipid)
  • Types:
    1. Triglycerides
    2. Phospholipid
    3. Steroids
  • Function:
    • Long-term energy store
    • Form cell membrane
    • Form some hormones
86
Q

List the different types of lipids

A
  1. Triglycerides
  2. Phospholipids
  3. Steroids
87
Q

Matter

A

Matter is anything that takes up physical space and has mass

88
Q

Define Metabolism

A

All the chemical reactions that occur in a cell

89
Q

Methyl Group

  • Symbol
  • Bonds
  • Occurs in
A

Symbol: -CH3

Bonds: Single covalent bonds

Occurs in: Fats, oils, steroids, amino acids

90
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • Organelles within eukaryotic cells that produce ATP, the main energy molecule used by a cell
  • Sometimes referred to as “the powerhouse of the cell”
91
Q

What is Mitosis?

A
  • Formation of a new cell
  • How multi-celled organisms grow larger & repair damaged tissues
  • It is a process by which a cell segregates its duplicated DNA, ultimately dividing its nucleus into two
92
Q

Model

A

Organisms and model systems used to test a hypothesis

93
Q

What are Mutations?

A
  • Provide an important source of variation in the genetic information
  • Example: Observable differences in eye and hair color
94
Q

Negative controls

A

Controls that are known to provide a negative result for an experiment’s conditions.

Example: using a placebo

95
Q

Neutron

A
  • Do not carry a charge
  • Affect the atomic mass and radioactive properties of atoms
  • Notated with a lowercase “n”
96
Q

Describe the following characteristics of nucleic acids:

  • Monomers
  • Polymers
  • Elements
  • Bond Type
A
  • Monomers: Nucleotides
  • Polymers: DNA & RNA
  • Elements: C, H, O, N, P (phosphorus)
  • Bonds: Polar covalent
97
Q

What are the parts of a nucleotide?

A
  1. Monosaccharide
  2. Nitrogen base
  3. Phosphorus group
98
Q

What are the 5 types of nucleotides?

What is the difference between the types of nucleotides?

A
  • Five Types:
    1. Adenine (A)
    2. Guanine (G)
    3. Cytosine (C)
    4. Thymine (T): found only in DNA
    5. Uracil (U): found only in RNA
  • The difference between the above nucleotides is their nitrogen base
99
Q

Observation

A

A formal way of watching the natural world

100
Q

Explain Order

A

Living things have order and are organized into cells

101
Q

Organ

A
  • When two or more tissues with a common structure and function join
  • Organs have a specific function and have visible anatomical boundaries
102
Q

Organ System

A
  • When two or more organs with a common structure and function join
  • The organs within an organ system are usually interconnected.
103
Q

Difference between

organic compounds and inorganic compounds

A
  • Organic compounds contain both carbon and hydrogen and are found only in living things
  • Inorganic compounds do not contain both carbon and hydrogen and can be found in living and non-living things
104
Q

List the 4 major

classifications of organic compounds

A
  1. Carbohydrates
  2. Proteins
  3. Lipids
  4. Nucleic acids
105
Q

List the types of organic molecules

A
  1. Carbohydrates
  2. Proteins
  3. Nucleic Acids
  4. Lipids
106
Q

What is an organism?

A

An individual that is a collection of organ systems, or an individual member of a species.

107
Q

Organism

A
  • An organism is used to describe an individual that is a collection of multiple organ systems
  • It is also used to indicate an individual member of a species
108
Q

Phosphate Group

  • Symbol
  • Bonds
  • Occurs in
A

Symbol: -H2PO4

Bonds:

  • Single & double covalent bonds,
  • Where P and O form by a double covalent bond

Occurs in: Nucleic acids, ATP

109
Q

Describe the following characteristics of phospholipids:

  1. Monomers
  2. Elements
  3. Structure
  4. Function
A
  • Monomers: 2 fatty acids, 1 glycerol & 1 phosphate
  • Elements: C, H, O, P
  • Structure:
    • The carbons form long chains
    • They are constructed like fats, except that in place of the third fatty acid, there is a polar phosphate group or a grouping that contains both phosphate and nitrogen
    • Hydrophobic & hydrophilic regions
    • Polar & non-polar covalent bonds
  • Function: Form the membrane of cells
110
Q

What is photosynthesis?

A
  • A process that transforms solar energy into the chemical energy of organic nutrient molecules.
  • All life on earth acquires energy by metabolizing nutrient molecules made by photosynthesizers
111
Q

Plants

A
  • Multicelled organisms
  • Obtain energy and some materials by photosynthesis and absorption
  • Examples: roses, pine trees, carrots, and moss.
112
Q

Polar and nonpolar bonds

A
  • Polar covalent bonds form when there is unequal sharing of electrons.
    • Results in the formation of an Electropositive ion that has partial + charge and an Electronegative ion that has partial – charge
    • Hydrophilic; dissolves in water
  • Nonpolar covalent bonds form when there is equal sharing of electrons
    • It is the strongest of all bonds
    • Hydrophobic
113
Q

Polarity

A
  • The separation of electric charges in a molecule due to the electric dipole moment
  • Such separation of charges leads to the positively charged end of a molecule and the negatively charged end
  • These two polar ends act as electric poles that differ in electric charges
  • Depending upon the electric charges of the molecule, it is classified as polar or nonpolar
114
Q

Polymer

A

A polymer is a macromolecule consisting of repeating units that represent the monomers, while monomers are building blocks of polymers.

115
Q

Difference between

monomers & polymers

A
  • Monomers vs Polymers:
    • A single molecule vs many molecules
    • Smaller molecular weight vs larger
    • Lower boiling point vs higher
    • Less mechanical strength vs more
  • They also have different chemical and physical properties. Example:
    • Glucose (monomer) is an oxidizing sugar, soluble in water, that has a sweet taste. Starch (polymer) of glucose is a non-oxidizing sugar, partially soluble in water, and doesn’t have a sweet taste
116
Q

Distinguish between the different

Polysaccharides

A
  1. Glycogen
    • Made of glucose monomers
    • Found liver & muscle of mammals
    • Short term energy store
  2. Starch
    • Found in roots & seeds of plants
    • Functions as an energy store
  3. Cellulose
    • Found in cell wall & bark & stem regions of plants
    • Functions to provide structural (physical) support for the plant cell and for the body of the plant
    • The cell wall protects the plant cells
117
Q

Positive controls

A

Give a known positive result during an experiment

118
Q

Principle

A
  • Used to support a theory, sometimes referred to as a law
  • Generally accepted by an overwhelming number of scientists
119
Q

Prokaryotes

A
  • Single-celled
  • In Archaea and Bacteria domains
  • Lack membrane-bound nucleus and organelles found in the cells of eukaryotes
120
Q

Describe the following characteristics of proteins:

  • Monomers
  • Polymers
  • Elements
  • Structure
  • Groups
  • Function
  • Hydrophilic / Hydrophobic
  • Bond Type
A
  • Monomer: Amino acids
  • Polymer: Polypeptides
  • Elements: C, H, O, N, (some have) S
  • Structure:
    • Three-dimensional shape. The correct shape is necessary for the protein to function correctly Its shape is determined by the order of the amino acids
    • Backbone of four fused carbon rings
  • Groups:
    • Amino Group
    • Acidic Group
    • R Group - which determines the uniqueness of each amino acid
  • Function:
    • Form enzymes (digestive enzymes)
    • Form some hormones (insulin)
    • Found in the cell membrane
    • Forms structures (hair, nails & muscles)
  • Hydrophilic
  • Bond: Polar bond

Key Points:

  • Proteins are essential for the main physiological processes of life and perform functions in every system of the human body.
  • A protein’s shape determines its function.
  • Proteins are composed of amino acid subunits that form polypeptide chains.
  • Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions by speeding up chemical reactions, and can either break down their substrate or build larger molecules from their substrate.
  • The shape of an enzyme’s active site matches the shape of the substrate.
  • Hormones are a type of protein used for cell signaling and communication.
  • Protein structure depends on its amino acid sequence and local, low-energy chemical bonds between atoms in both the polypeptide backbone and in amino acid side chains.
  • Protein structure plays a key role in its function; if a protein loses its shape at any structural level, it may no longer be functional.
  • Primary structure is the amino acid sequence.
  • Secondary structure is local interactions between stretches of a polypeptide chain and includes α-helix and β-pleated sheet structures.
  • Tertiary structure is the overall the three-dimension folding driven largely by interactions between R groups.
  • Quarternary structures is the orientation and arrangement of subunits in a multi-subunit protein.
  • Correct shape is necessary for the protein to function correctly
  • Shape of a protein is determined by the order of the amino acids
  • To denature is to disrupt the shape of a protein
121
Q

Protist

A
  • Single-celled
  • They obtain energy and materials in three different ways:
    • Absorption (from their environment)
    • Ingestion
    • Photosynthesis (making their own energy)
  • Examples: Amoeba and paramecium
122
Q

Proton

A
  • A subatomic particle that has a single positive charge
  • Guide the atomic number, which gives the periodic table its organization
  • Notated with a lowercase “p”
123
Q

Reproduce

A

The formation of a new cell or organism takes place by the process of mitosis

  • Asexual: involves only one individual (one parent). The new individual formed is a genetically identical clone of the parent
  • Sexual: involves two individuals (two parents). The new individual formed is genetically different from the parents
124
Q

Respond to Stimuli

A
  • The body’s ability to sense and react to stimuli
  • Example: the pupil of your eyes will change size when the amount of light changes
125
Q

Response (Dependent) Variable

A
  • Changes resulting from exposure to the independent variable
  • Charted on the Y-axis
  • Example: Test Score, Plant Growth
126
Q

RNA

A
  • RNA converts the genetic code from DNA into proteins to carry out cellular functions
  • Single-stranded structure
  • Has a 5 carbon backbone, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base
  • Located everywhere inside a cell
127
Q

What is the monosaccharide in RNA?

A

Ribose

128
Q

Saturated and Trans Fats in Foods

A
  • Saturated and unsaturated fats have different effects on the human body
  • Saturated fats have been linked by scientists to negatively affect heart health, contributing to clogging of arteries and cardiovascular disease (CVD)
  • Unsaturated fats seem to help prevent CVD because they don’t together in the blood and therefore don’t clog arteries
  • Due to unsaturated fats being more difficult to use than solid food products, food manufacturers hydrogenate unsaturated fatty acids by heating the oil and exposing it to hydrogen gas.
  • This results in an otherwise liquid oil becoming semisolid at room temperature and gave foods containing partially hydrogenated oils better shelf life.
  • An unintended consequence was the formation of trans fats. Many commercially packaged foods contain trans fats, which have shown to increase LDL (bad cholesterol) and lowers HDL (good cholesterol).
  • Trans fat consumption also appears to increase the risk of CVD and heart attack
129
Q

What is the difference between

scientific magazines & scientific journals?

A
  • Scientific journals publish to the scientific community
  • Scientific magazines publish articles to the general public
130
Q

Provide an everyday example of using the scientific method

A

Example: I will be baking a casserole for my family’s dinner tonight.

  1. Observation: I will be making a casserole for dinner tonight, and it needs to be fully cooked (heated) prior to serving.
  2. Hypothesis: I hypothesize that after baking the casserole for 45 minutes at 350 degrees Fahrenheit that it will be fully cooked (heated) and ready to be served for dinner.
  3. Experiment: Preheat oven to 350 degrees Farenheight. Assemble all ingredients and add to an oven-safe casserole dish. Place the dish into the preheated oven. Set the timer for 45 minutes. After 45 minutes have passed, evaluate whether the casserole is fully cooked by slicing through the center of the casserole and using my sight to inspect the color and cohesiveness of the ingredients, and then tasting the casserole to ensure it is fully cooked (heated) through. The time (baking duration) is the experimental (independent) variable. The outcome (fully cooked) is the response (dependent) variable.
  4. Conclusion: After removing the casserole from the oven after 45 minutes and tasting the meal, yes, it is fully cooked and ready to be served.
131
Q

Explain Scientific Method

A
  • A standard series of steps used in gathering information about the natural world in an orderly fashion
  • The process results in knowledge that are based on objective, not subjective, methods
  • Widely accepted among scientists and acts as a guideline for scientific studies
132
Q

Limitations on the

Scientific Method

A
  1. Appropriate and accurate control groups may not always be possible
    • For some experiments, especially ones involving humans, a control group may not actually exist
    • Example: in trying to determine the effect of secondhand smoke, the control group would be composed of people who have never exposed to secondhand smoke in their entire life. It is doubtful there are such individuals
  2. Cannot make moral or value judgments
    • The scientific method generates specific results but the method cannot be used to determine how to use these results
    • Example: the process of cloning and the abortion pill were discovered using the scientific method but only society can determine how they should be used. The method cannot decide if cloning or use of the abortion pill should be an option
  3. The solution may not exist
    • Not all problems have a solution
    • Example: We cannot fix the hole in the ozone layer or make it rain during times of drought
  4. Confusing data
    • Data can be difficult to interpret
    • Example: Saccharin was demonstrated to cause cancer in laboratory animals. In those experiments, the animals were fed enormous amounts of saccharin (most likely at the expense of other vital nutrients). Was cancer caused by the saccharin or by the lack of other nutrients in their diet?
  5. Unexpected results
    • Example: The discovery penicillin was discovered by accident
133
Q

What are the 4 steps in the scientific method?

A
  1. Observation
  2. Hypothesis
  3. Experiment
  4. Conclusion
134
Q

Scientific theory

A
  • Concepts that join together well-supported and related hypotheses.
  • Supported by a broad range of observations, experiments, and data, often from a variety of disciplines
135
Q

What is a species?

A

A group of similar, interbreeding organisms

136
Q

Standard error

(standard deviation)

A

How far off the average could be

137
Q

Statistical significance

A
  • A probability (p) value of less than 5% is acceptable
  • The lower the (p) value, the greater the confidence in the results
138
Q

Describe the following characteristics of steroids:

  • Elements
  • Structure
  • Function
A
  • Elements: C, H, O
  • Structure:
    • Four carbon rings
    • Each ring differs primarily by the arrangement of the atoms and the type of functional groups attached to them
  • Function:
    • Form some hormones: such as estrogen, testosterone, growth hormones, & cortisol are all examples of steroid hormones
    • Form some vitamins, such as vitamin D
    • Cholesterol: cholesterol is part of the cell membrane

Key Points:

  • Steroids are lipids because they are hydrophobic and insoluble in water, but they do not resemble lipids since they have a structure composed of four fused rings.
  • Cholesterol is the most common steroid and is the precursor to vitamin D, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, aldosterone, cortisol, and bile salts.
  • Cholesterol is a component of the phospholipid bilayer and plays a role in the structure and function of membranes.
  • Steroids are found in the brain and alter electrical activity in the brain.
  • Because they can tone down receptors that communicate messages from neurotransmitters, steroids are often used in anesthetic medicines
139
Q

Structural proteins

A
  • Help build components of organisms
  • Its main role is protection of the cells beneath it
  • Keratin is a structural protein found in skin, hair, nails, and hooves
140
Q

What is Systematics?

A
  • Organisms are classified according to their presumed evolutionary relationships
  • Organisms placed in the same genus are the most closely related, and those in separate domains are the most distantly related
  • Therefore, all eukaryotes are more closely related to one another than they are to bacteria or archaea. Similarly, all animals are more closely related to one another than they are to plants
141
Q

Taxonomy

A

The study of classifying organisms into categories

142
Q

Tissue

A
  • When two or more cells with a common structure and function join
  • A group of cells that form a discrete region of an organ and perform a specific function
143
Q

Describe the following characteristics of triglycerides:

  • Monomers
  • Elements
  • Structure
  • Function
A
  • Monomers: Glycerol & Fatty acids
  • Elements: C, H, O
  • Structure:
    • Carbons form long chains
    • Hydrophobic
  • Function:
    • Long term energy store
    • Insulation
    • Cushions & protect organs
    • Used by a cell to produce ATP
144
Q

Explain

Unity and Diversity of Living Things

A
  • Unity means similarities, and diversity means differences
  • Living things have unity because of the process of evolution. Since all living things are descended from a common ancestor, they have features in common
  • Living things have diversity because they are adapted to different environments.
    • For example, the forelimbs of all mammals have the same basic structure but have been adapted for different environments
145
Q

Valence Shell

A
  • The outermost shell of an atom
  • Determines the bonding properties of an atom
    • Chemically active atoms will bond with other elements because their valence shell is not filled
    • Chemically inactive elements will not bond with other elements because their valence shell is filled
146
Q

How do the unique properties

of water support living organisms on earth?

A
  • The first cells evolved in water, and organisms are composed of 70-90% water
  • Water is a polar molecule, and water molecules are hydrogen-bonded to one another
  • Due to hydrogen bonding, water molecules cling together
    • Without hydrogen bonding between molecules, water would change from a solid to liquid state at –100 degrees C and from a liquid to a gaseous state at –91 degrees C.
    • This would make most of the water on Earth steam, and life unlikely. But because of hydrogen bonding, water is a liquid at temperatures typically found on Earth’s surface. It melts at 0 degrees C and boils at 100 degrees C.
  • These and other unique properties of water make it essential to the existence of life

BIO 100 General Biology (5 decks)

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