Unit 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is ionic bonding
A
-between metal(s) and non-metal(s)
- exchange of electrons
- the opposite charges attract which forms the bond
2
Q
What is covalent bonding
A
-two or more non-metals
-sharing electrons
- polar covalent bond and non-polar bond
3
Q
What are non-polar bonds
A
-covalent bonding
- equal share of electrons
- between two of the same elements OR similar electronegativities
4
Q
What are polar covalent bonds
A
- covalent bonding
- unequal share of electrons
- between two elements with very different electronegativities
- H with NOPS
5
Q
What are polar molecules
A
- polar covalent bond
- Asymmetrical (opposite ends)
6
Q
What is hydrogen bonding
A
- weak attraction between two polar molecules
7
Q
What is water
A
- surface tension
- meniscus
- universal solvent
- holds DNA together
8
Q
What are intramolecular bonds
A
-ionic bonds
- covalent bonds
9
Q
what are intermolecular bonds
A
- hydrogen bonds
- polar covalent bonds have more intermolecular forces
10
Q
what is the order of strength between bonds
A
-Ionic bonds
- covalent bonds
-hydrogen bonds
11
Q
What are the properties of carbohydrates
A
-C, H, and O in the same proportions (1, 2, 1)
- soluble in water
12
Q
What are carbohydrates used for
A
- short term energy source and short term storage
- building materials mainly cellulose in plant cell wall
- cell surface markers for cell to cell identification and communication
13
Q
What are the types of carbohydrates
A
- monosaccharide
- disaccharide
- polysaccharide
14
Q
What are monosaccharides
A
- a simple sugar
- C6H12O6
- examples are: alpha-glucose, beta-glucose, fructose
15
Q
What are isomers in relation to carbohydrates
A
- all of the different forms of C6H12O6 all have the same chemical formula but with a different arrangement of atoms
- they have different shapes and different chemical and physical properties
16
Q
What are disaccharides
A
- two simple sugars joined together
- formed by condensation reaction
- examples are: maltose and sucrose
17
Q
What are polysaccharides
A
- many sugars linked together forming chains and can be branched and/or helical depending on the linkages
- animals stockpile glucose as glycogen which is stored in muscle and liver cells
- plants store glucose as starch as insoluble granules ,some have specialized structures to do this
- cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls, formed in long tight bundles
18
Q
What is starch
A
- the linkage of alpha-glucose monomers
- digestible in animals by amylase
19
Q
What is cellulose
A
- the linkage of beta-glucose monomers
- not digestible in animals (requites cellulose)
20
Q
What is Benedict’s reagent used to detect
A
reducing sugars
21
Q
What is Iodine used to detect
A
starch
22
Q
What are proteins used for
A
- enzymes
- immunoglobins
- transport
- hemoglobin
- carriers of sugar in phloem of plants
- keratin
- fibrin
- collagen
23
Q
What are enzymes
A
make chemical reactions proceed at a speed that sustains life
24
Q
What are immunoglobulins
A
protect against foreign microbes and cancer cells
25
What are proteins used for in transport
transport through cell membranes and through bodies
26
What is hemoglobin
carries oxygen
27
What is proteins carriers of
carriers of sugar in phloem of plants
28
What is keratin
hair and fingernails
29
What is fibrin
helps blood clot
30
What is collagen
bones, skin, ligaments and tendons
31
What are proteins
- amino acid polymers folded into specific three-dimensional shapes
- their structural shape determines their function
32
What are amino acids
-proteins
- there are 20 different amino acids commonly found in living things
33
What are essential amino acids
-our body cannot synthesize them from simpler compounds and must be obtained from the diet
- there are 9 of them
34
What is protein synthesis
- is under the direct control of the DNA the folding of the protein depends on the nature of the side chains (R-groups) of the amino acids
- held together by hydrogen bonds between nearby amino acids
- folding stabilized by R-group interactions (ionic, hydrogen, covalent)
- examples are collagen, keratin, and hemoglobin
35
What are the four steps of protein synthesis
- Primary structure
- Secondary structure
- Tertiary structure
- Quaternary structure
36
How can proteins be denatured
-proteins can be denatured and function best within a narrow range of:
- temperatures
- pH
- Salt concentration
- harsh chemicals also denature proteins
37
What does Biuret Reagent detect
proteins
38
What are lipids
-hydrophobic and composed of C, H, and O
- mainly non-polar due to many C-H bonds
- four families: fats, phospholipids, steroids and waxes
39
what are the four families of lipids
- fats
- phospholipids
- steroids
- waxes
40
What are lipids used for
- chemical signaling molecules
- long term storage of energy (droplets in adipose tissue acts as thermal insulation and cushioning too!)
- building membranes
41
What is fat
- one gram of fat stores twice the energy of one gram of carbohydrate or protein (36 kJ vs 17 kJ)
- most common type of fat are triglycerides
- usually even numbered and 16 and 18 carbons in length
42
What are saturated fatty acids
- have only single bonds between carbon atoms and have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible attached to the carbon skeleton
- animal fats such as butter and lard
- fatty acids can pack in close together resulting in solids at room temperature
- high levels of saturated fats is linked to atherosclerosis
43
What are unsaturated fatty acids
-have one or more carbon-carbon double bonds
-commonly found in plant oils such as olive oil, corn oil, and peanut oil
- the resulting bends or kinks in the fatty acids chains results in liquids at room temperature
44
What is hydrogenation
adds hydrogen atoms to the double bonds converting them into a semi-solid material (margarine and shortening). Also called trans fats
45
Steroids include:
- cholesterol keeps cell membrane fluid and convert to Vit. D, and bile salt and carry fat soluble D, E, A, K
- sex hormones (estrogen, testosterone, progesterone)
46
What are waxes
- forms a water-resistant coating on the surface of stems, leaves and fruit
- barrier to infection
- bees - construct honeycombs
- birds - keep feathers dry
47
What are phospholipids
main component of cell membranes
48
What is Sudan IV used to detect
lipids
49
What are isomers
-carbon compounds may from isomers
- same molecular formula but different structures
50
What are structural isomers
- two or more compounds with the same atoms bonded differently
- e.g. glucose and fructose
51
What are stereoisomers
-two or more compounds with their atoms bonded in the same way but with their atoms arranged differently in space
- two types of stereoisomers: optical isomers, geometrical isomers
52
What are geometrical isomers
- stereoisomers
- have very different physical properties but tend to have same chemical properties
- e.g. glucose and galactose
53
What are optical isomers
- stereoisomers
- non-superimposable mirror images of each other
- usually have similar chemical and physical properties but enzymes or proteins on the cell membrane can differentiate between them
- usually one is biologically active and the other is inactive
54
What are nucleic acids
- informational macromolecules
- store hereditary information that determines the structural and functional characteristics of an organism
55
What are the uses of nucleic acids
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
- RNA (ribonucleic acid)
- ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
56
How many nitrogenous bases are there
five
57
How many hydrogen bonds are between A and T
2
58
How many hydrogen bonds are between G and C
3
59
Which nucleic acids are purines
Adenine and Guanine
60
Which nucleic acids are permidlnes
Thymine and Cystosine
61
What is DNA
- stores digital code for creating an organism
- the set of instructions t hat complete a protein is called a gene. Many genes make a chromosome
- stores information for making proteins. The nucleotide order in DNA forms a code that specifies the order of the amino acid in a particular protein.
62
How much DNA does a human have
- more than 3 billion base pairs
- 30000 to 35000 genes in 46 chromosomes
63
What does DNA look like
- consists of two long nucleotide strands wound around each other like railings of a circular stairway
-the nucleotide bases face each other and are attracted to each other by hydrogen bonding
- DNA bases always pair A & T and G & C = complementary base pairs
64
What is RNA
- reads the information in DNA and transports it to the ribosome. The ribosome assembles a polypeptide chain under the RNA instructions
65
What is ATP
- a nucleotide derivative
- drives all the energy-requiring reactions in a cell
- other energy carriers are also nucleotide derivatives (NAD+, FAD, NADP+, cAMP)
66
What are functional groups
the presence of different atoms and their arrangement confer characteristic properties and shapes of molecules
67
What does biuret solution do when a protein is/isn't present
- when is present, colour changes to purple
- when isn't present, colour changes to blue
68
What does sudan IV do when a lipid is/isn't present
- when is present, colour changes to red
- when isn't present, liquids separate (red on top, clear bottom)
69
What does iodine do when a starch is/isn't present
- when is present, forms a dark blue precipitate
- when isn't present, colour changes to yellow
70
What does Benedict's Reagent do when a reducing sugar is/isn't present
- when is present, colour changes to red
- when isn't present, no change
71
What is the equation for aerobic cellular resporation
C6H12O6 + O2 <=> Co2 + H2O + energy (ATP)
72
What is diffusion
- the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
73
What does diffusion depend on
- temperature
- concentration (steepness of the concentration gradient)
74
What is osmosis
- the movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across a semi-permeable membrane
75
What is tonicity
- the extracellular solution's ability to make water move in or out of the cell by osmosis
76
What is passive transport
- the movement of molecules with their concentration gradient, requiring no energy expenditure
77
What is active transport
energy (ATP) is used to move molecules against their concentration gradient
78
What is facilitated diffusion
is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across the membrane using a protein carrier
79
What is cotransport
one molecule moves down its concentration gradient and another molecule moves with it (symport) or opposite to it (antiport)
80
What is endocytosis
- the bulk transport of particles (large, polar) into the cell by extending the membrane outwards surrounding the particles
- phagocytosis: solids
- pinocytosis: liquids
81
What is receptor-mediated cytosis
specific receptors gather molecules in a pit and then the pit deepens and seals off into a vesicle
82
What is exocytosis
the movement of particles to the outside of the cell by fusing to the membrane and releasing the contents
83
What are enzymes
-biological catalyst
- proteins
- speed up chemical reactions
- reusable
- specific to one reaction
- usually end in "ase"
- break or join molecules
84
What does an enzyme do to activation energy
reduces it
85
How does an enzyme reduce the activation energy
- the R groups in the active site stress the bonds of the substrate, weakening the bonds in the molecule
- R-groups lining the active site transfer hydrogen ions to or from the substrate weakening bonds
- place substrate in appropriate orientation to facilitate the correct reaction
- amino acid groups at the active site can accept electrons or are attracted to the atomic nuclei of the substrate. Provides temporary attraction and substrate is less stable and more likely to react
86
At which conditions are enzymes denatured
- optimal temperature and pH ant which they work best
- denatured if out of optimal ranges and substrate cannot bind
87
How are enzymes denatured
- low temperatures make enzymes less flexible and therefore less able to provide an induced to substrates
- at low temperature less collision energy at high temperature collisions are too forceful
- at high temperatures, bonds are weakened and are less able to hold the enzyme in the proper orientation due to high vibration
- at extreme pH, the H+ ions or OH- ions interfere with R-groups changing the shape of the protein and thus active site
88
What are competitive inhibitors
- substances that compete directly with the substrate for an enzymes active site
- many competitive inhibitors are drugs (penicillin, nerve gas, viagra)
89
What are non-competitive inhibitors
- substances that attach to a binding site other than the active site, causing a change in shape and a loss of affinity for the substrate
90
What is allosteric regulation
- receptor sites, some distance from the active site of certain enzymes, that bind substances that may inhibit or stimulate an enzyme's activity
91
What is an allosteric inhibitor
stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme
92
What is an allosteric activator
keeps active sites available by stabilizing protein conformation allows cell to control metabolic pathways
93
What is feedback inhibition
- a product formed later in a sequence of reaction steps allosterically inhibits an enzyme that catalyzes a reaction occurring earlier in the process
94
What are cofactors and coenzymes
non protein helpers
95
What are cofactors
-inorganic ions (Cu, Zn, Fe)
- located in active sites
- attract electrons from substrate breaking bonds
96
What are coenzymes
-organic non protein molecules
- vitamins are parts of coenzymes
- are part of the active site and without them the enzyme cannot function
97
What are uses of enzymes in the industry
- brewing, baking, wine making ( Glucose -> ethanol + CO2)
- production of glucose as well as sweetener from starch (amylase and maltase in bacteria and fungi)
- enzymes in cleaning products to breakdown organic stains
- cheese making
98
What is the sodium potassium pump
- an example of active transport
- creates an electro-chemical gradient
- used in muscle tissue, nerve impulses
99
What is step one of the sodium potassium pump
-the carrier protein has a shape that allows it to take up Na+
100
What is step two of the sodium potassium pump
- ATP is split and a phosphate group is transferred to the carrier protein
- ATP losing a phosphate group releases energy that can change the protein's shape
101
What is step three of the sodium potassium pump
- A change in shape of the carrier protein causes the release of 3 Na+ outside the cell
102
What is step four of the sodium potassium pump
- The altered shape permits the u[take of two K+
103
What is step five of the sodium potassium pump
- The phosphate group is released from the carrier protein
104
What happens after the sodium potassium pump works for a while
- the K+ ions are released into the cell
- there is a build up of an electrochemical gradient
105
What is a condensation reaction
-dehydration synthesis
- water molecule is removed to bond two molecules
106
What is a hydration reaction
-hydrolysis
- water molecule is added to a molecule to break it into two
107
What are the redox reactions
-reduction
- oxidation
- oxidation and reduction occur together in many reactions so the entire reaction is called a redox reaction
108
What is the oxidation reaction
-loss of electrons
- ex. Ca -> Ca2+ + 2 electrons
109
What is the reduction reaction
- gain of electrons
- ex. O + 2 electrons -> O2-
110
What is a neutralization reaction
- acid and base results in water and a salt
- ex. HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H2O
- acid donates H+ ions when it dissolves/dissociates in water
- bases decrease the concentration of H+ ions by attracting H+. OH- ions increase when bases dissolve/dissociate in water
111
What does anabolic mean
reactions that produce large molecules from smaller subunits. Building.
112
What does catabolic mean
reactions that break macromolecules into their individual subunits. Breaking.
113
What does exothermic mean
a chemical reaction in which the energy of the products is less than the energy of the reactants. Energy is released
114
What does endothermic mean
a chemical reaction in which the energy of the products is more than the energy of the reactants. Energy is absorbed.
115
What is a lysosome
a membrane-bound vesicle containing enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis reactions, thereby breaking down macromolecules
116
What is a vacuole
a large, membrane-bound sac in plant cells and some other cells that stores water, ions, macromolecules, sugars, and amino acids
117
What is a mitochondria
an organelle found in eukaryotic cells that supplies most of the cell's ATP
118
What are internal cell membranes
- separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment
- regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell
119
What is a ribosome
a cell structure composed of RNA and proteins, and responsible for protein synthesis
120
What is smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum
an organelle in cells that synthesizes and stores substances, and helps fold proteins
121
What are golgi bodies
organelles that process and package proteins and lipids for use inside and outside the cell
122
What are chloroplasts
organelles in plant and algae cells that convert sunlight into chemical energy through photosynthesis
