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Unit 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is hemostasis?

A

Process of stopping bleeding

It limits blood loss.

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2
Q

What are the three phases of hemostasis?

A
  • Vascular phase
  • Platelet phase
  • Coagulation phase
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3
Q

What occurs during the vascular phase of hemostasis?

A

Smooth muscle contracts, leading to vasoconstriction at the site of damage due to chemical release from damaged endothelial cells

This phase stimulates cell division.

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4
Q

What happens during the platelet phase?

A
  • Platelets activated at the site of vessel damage
  • Grow processes
  • Attach to vessel walls and each other
  • Forms a platelet plug
  • Positive feedback
  • Releases chemicals to activate tissue factors
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5
Q

What is the role of tissue factors in the coagulation phase?

A

They activate Factor X (10), which in turn activates prothrombin

Prothrombin is a blood protein involved in clotting.

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6
Q

What does activated prothrombin produce?

A

Thrombin

Thrombin is an active form of prothrombin.

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7
Q

What is fibrinogen?

A

A blood protein involved in clotting

It is converted into fibrin during the coagulation phase.

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8
Q

What is the final product of the coagulation phase?

A

Fibrin, which forms a blood clot

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9
Q

What occurs during clot retraction?

A

The vessel wall is repaired

This is the final step of hemostasis.

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10
Q

What is blood classified as?

A

Specialized connective tissue

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11
Q

What is one of the primary functions of blood?

A

Transportation of dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones, and metabolic wastes

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12
Q

What do red blood cells carry from the lungs to peripheral tissues?

A

Oxygen

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13
Q

What do red blood cells carry from tissues back to the lungs?

A

Carbon dioxide

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14
Q

What role does blood play in regulating pH?

A

Regulates pH and ion composition of interstitial fluid

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15
Q

Fill in the blank: Blood diffusion with interstitial fluid helps to eliminate local deficiencies or excess ions such as _______.

A

potassium and calcium

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16
Q

How does blood restrict fluid loss at injury sites?

A

Through enzymes and substances that respond to breaks in vessel walls and initiate a blood clot

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17
Q

What do white blood cells do in response to toxins and pathogens?

A

Migrate into other tissues to fight infections or remove debris

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18
Q

What is the role of blood in stabilizing body temperature?

A

Absorbs heat generated by active skeletal muscles and redistributes it to other tissues

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19
Q

What is the temperature of blood?

A

About 38°C (100.4°F)

This is slightly above normal body temperature.

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20
Q

How viscous is blood compared to water?

A

Blood is 5 times as viscous as water

This means it is 5 times thicker, stickier, cohesive, and resistant to flow due to interactions between dissolved proteins, formed elements, and water molecules in plasma.

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21
Q

Do males typically have more blood than females?

A

Yes

Males typically have a higher blood volume.

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22
Q

How can blood volume be determined in liters?

A

By calculating 7% of the body weight in kilograms

This provides an estimate of blood volume based on body weight.

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23
Q

What are the four components of blood?

A
  1. Plasma
  2. Red blood cells
  3. White blood cells
  4. Platelets

These components describe the composition of whole blood.

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24
Q

What percentage of blood volume does plasma make up?

A

About 55%

Plasma is the liquid component of blood.

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25
What is the composition of plasma?
92% water, ions, solutes, plasma proteins, other solutes (primarily nutrients, electrolytes, and wastes) ## Footnote Plasma is primarily composed of water, but also contains various solutes.
26
What are the three types of proteins found in plasma?
1. Albumins 2. Globulins 3. Fibrinogen ## Footnote These proteins make up 99% of plasma proteins.
27
Fill in the blank: Blood is _______ times as viscous as water.
5 ## Footnote This indicates the thickness and resistance to flow of blood.
28
True or False: Plasma consists of 55% of blood volume.
True ## Footnote Plasma is the major liquid component of blood.
29
What are albumins?
Make up majority of plasma proteins ## Footnote Albumins are key components of blood plasma, crucial for maintaining osmotic pressure.
30
What is the primary role of albumins in plasma?
Major contributors to plasma osmolarity and osmotic pressure ## Footnote They help regulate the movement of water between blood and tissues.
31
What substances do albumins transport?
Fatty acids, thyroid hormones, some steroid hormones, and other substances ## Footnote Albumins play a vital role in the transport of various molecules in the bloodstream.
32
What are globulins?
Most abundant protein in plasma ## Footnote Globulins are a diverse group of proteins with various functions in the body.
33
What role do antibodies (immunoglobulins) play?
Aid in body defense ## Footnote Antibodies are crucial for the immune response, recognizing and neutralizing pathogens.
34
What is the function of transport globulins?
Bind small ions, hormones, and substances with lower solubility ## Footnote They help transport molecules that might otherwise be removed by the kidneys.
35
What do hormone binding proteins provide?
A reserve of hormones in bloodstream ## Footnote These proteins help regulate hormone availability and activity in the body.
36
Give an example of a hormone binding protein.
Thyroid binding globulin ## Footnote This protein transports thyroid hormones in the blood.
37
What do metalloproteins transport?
Metal ions ## Footnote Metalloproteins are essential for the transport and storage of metal ions in the body.
38
What is transferrin responsible for transporting?
Iron ## Footnote Transferrin plays a crucial role in iron metabolism and homeostasis.
39
What do apolipoproteins carry?
Triglycerides and other lipids in blood ## Footnote Apolipoproteins are essential for lipid transport and metabolism.
40
What do steroid binding proteins transport?
Steroid hormones ## Footnote These proteins help regulate the transport and availability of steroid hormones in the bloodstream.
41
What is the function of fibrinogen?
Functions in blood clotting ## Footnote Fibrinogen is a soluble protein that converts to fibrin during the clotting process.
42
What organ synthesizes and releases more than 90% of plasma proteins?
Liver ## Footnote The liver plays a crucial role in maintaining the composition and functional properties of blood.
43
What are the formed elements of blood?
Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets ## Footnote These elements make up 45% of whole blood volume.
44
What does hematocrit measure?
Percentage of a blood sample with formed elements ## Footnote Hematocrit is a key indicator of blood composition.
45
What is the process by which formed elements are produced?
Hematopoiesis ## Footnote This process occurs primarily in the bone marrow.
46
What are red blood cells also known as?
Erythrocytes ## Footnote Erythrocytes are responsible for transporting respiratory gases.
47
What percentage of formed elements do red blood cells constitute?
99% ## Footnote Red blood cells are the most abundant formed elements in the blood.
48
What red pigment do red blood cells contain?
Hemoglobin ## Footnote Hemoglobin binds and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
49
What is the volume percentage of blood occupied by red blood cells?
45% ## Footnote This indicates the proportion of red blood cells in total blood volume.
50
Fill in the blank: Prothrombin also aids in blood _______.
Clotting ## Footnote Prothrombin is a precursor to thrombin, which plays a key role in the clotting process.
51
True or False: Platelets are considered formed elements in blood.
True ## Footnote Platelets are crucial for blood clotting and are one of the formed elements.
52
What is the average lifespan of erythrocytes (RBC)?
120 days ## Footnote Erythrocytes undergo turnover and are eventually broken down by hemolysis.
53
Which organs are primarily involved in the breakdown of erythrocytes?
Liver and Spleen ## Footnote These organs degrade protein chains and recycle iron into heme molecules.
54
What structural feature of red blood cells allows for a large surface area to volume ratio?
Diconcave shape ## Footnote This shape enhances the RBC's ability to transport gases.
55
How do red blood cells facilitate smooth blood flow through narrow blood vessels?
Form stacks ## Footnote Stacking helps to reduce turbulence and improve flow efficiency.
56
What allows red blood cells to bend and flex when entering small capillaries?
Flexible plasma membrane ## Footnote This flexibility is essential for navigating through narrow passages.
57
What organelles are lacking in red blood cells?
Nucleus and other organelles ## Footnote This absence allows more space for hemoglobin and maximizes oxygen transport.
58
What is the primary component of hemoglobin that binds oxygen?
Heme group ## Footnote Each hemoglobin molecule contains four protein chains, each with a heme group.
59
What does hemoglobin transport in addition to oxygen?
Carbon dioxide ## Footnote Hemoglobin plays a crucial role in transporting both gases in the blood.
60
Fill in the blank: Erythrocytes are broken down by _______.
hemolysis ## Footnote This process is essential for recycling components of the red blood cells.
61
What are the two categories of leukocytes?
Granulocytes and agranulocytes ## Footnote Granulocytes have visible granules in their cytoplasm, while agranulocytes lack granules.
62
What percentage of blood volume do leukocytes constitute?
Less than 1% ## Footnote This indicates that leukocytes are relatively rare in the blood compared to other components like red blood cells.
63
Where do leukocytes develop?
In the bone marrow from hematopoietic stem cells ## Footnote Hematopoietic stem cells are the precursors to all blood cells.
64
What stimulates the development of leukocytes?
Colony stimulating factors ## Footnote These factors are signaling molecules that promote the proliferation and differentiation of stem cells.
65
What are the three types of granulocytes?
* Neutrophils * Eosinophils * Basophils ## Footnote Each type has distinct functions in the immune response.
66
What is the primary function of neutrophils?
Engulf and digest pathogens ## Footnote Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell and are key players in the immune response.
67
What do neutrophils release to increase capillary permeability?
Chemicals ## Footnote This process aids in the immune response by allowing more immune cells to reach the site of infection.
68
What is the role of eosinophils?
Kill pathogens and respond to allergens ## Footnote Eosinophils are particularly important in combating parasitic infections and allergic reactions.
69
What do basophils release?
* Histamine * Heparin ## Footnote Histamine causes blood vessel dilation, while heparin acts as an anticoagulant to prevent blood clotting.
70
What are the two types of agranulocytes?
* Monocytes * Lymphocytes ## Footnote Lymphocytes further differentiate into B-cells and T-cells, which are crucial for adaptive immunity.
71
What is a characteristic of monocytes?
Large, aggressive phagocytes ## Footnote Monocytes can differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells, enhancing their phagocytic abilities.
72
What types of cells are included in lymphocytes?
* B-Cells * T-Cells ## Footnote B-cells are primarily involved in antibody production, while T-cells are essential for cell-mediated immunity.
73
What is the percentage of blood volume that platelets constitute?
Less than 1%
74
Where do platelets develop?
In bone marrow from hematopoietic stem cells
75
What stimulates the development of platelets?
CSFs
76
What are platelets fragments of?
Megakaryocytes
77
What are the four components of blood?
1) Liquid matrix = plasma (water + solutes) 2) Erythrocytes 3) Leucocytes 4) Platelets
78
What determines blood typing?
Antigens present on the surface of cells
79
What are the two main antigen systems for blood typing?
ABO and Rh
80
What is an antigen?
Marker on the surface of a cell
81
What does the presence of Rh antigen indicate?
Rh positive blood type
82
True or False: Antiserum reacts with antigens.
True
83
Fill in the blank: Blood typing includes the _______ antigen system.
[ABO]
84
Fill in the blank: The liquid matrix of blood is called _______.
[plasma]
85
What is erythropoiesis?
The process of red blood cell production occurring in the bone marrow, stimulated by erythropoietin (EPO) ## Footnote Erythropoiesis involves several stages, including hematopoietic stem cells, proerythroblasts, erythroblasts, normoblasts, reticulocytes, and mature erythrocytes.
86
What stimulates erythropoiesis?
Erythropoietin (EPO) ## Footnote EPO is a hormone produced primarily by the kidneys in response to low oxygen levels in the blood.
87
List the stages of erythropoiesis in order.
* Hematopoietic stem cell * Proerythroblast * Erythroblast * Normoblast * Reticulocyte * Mature erythrocyte ## Footnote These stages represent the development of red blood cells from stem cells to mature cells.
88
What is the primary function of the endocrine system?
To release hormones that travel in the blood and bind to receptors to alter cell activity ## Footnote The endocrine system plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes.
89
What are the three stimuli for hormone release?
* Hormonal stimulus * Neural stimulus * Humoral stimulus ## Footnote Each type of stimulus triggers hormone release through different mechanisms.
90
What is a hormonal stimulus?
A stimulus where one hormone triggers the release of another hormone ## Footnote This type of stimulus is common in the endocrine system and often involves feedback loops.
91
What is a neural stimulus?
An impulse from the nervous system that triggers hormone release ## Footnote This can occur during stress responses or other situations requiring rapid hormonal changes.
92
What is a humoral stimulus?
A change in blood factors that triggers hormone release ## Footnote Examples include changes in blood glucose levels prompting insulin release.
93
What are the three classes of hormones?
1. Amino acid derivatives 2. Peptide hormones 3. Lipid derivatives ## Footnote Hormones are classified based on their chemical structure.
94
What are peptide hormones?
Short chains of amino acids ## Footnote Peptide hormones play a critical role in various physiological processes.
95
How do hydrophilic and hydrophobic hormones differ in blood transport?
Hydrophilic hormones (peptide, some amino acids) travel differently than hydrophobic hormones (thyroid, lipid) ## Footnote The solubility of hormones affects their transport and function in the body.
96
What is the role of chaperone proteins in hormone transport?
Chaperone proteins help transport certain hormones in the bloodstream ## Footnote These proteins assist in stabilizing hormones and facilitating their movement.
97
Where are intracellular receptors found?
Cytoplasm, mitochondria, nucleus ## Footnote Intracellular receptors bind to hormones that can pass through the cell membrane.
98
What is the primary way hormones alter cell activity?
By binding to receptors ## Footnote Hormonal binding leads to changes in cell function and gene expression.
99
True or False: Membrane receptors require a second messenger to alter cell activity.
True ## Footnote Membrane receptors typically activate intracellular signaling pathways through second messengers.
100
What is the primary function of the endocrine system?
Controls and coordinates body processes ## Footnote The endocrine system achieves this through the release of hormones.
101
Define hormones.
Chemical messengers that regulate human activities ## Footnote Hormones are crucial for various physiological functions.
102
What are target cells?
Specific cells in other tissues that have the receptors needed to bind and read the hormonal message ## Footnote Target cells respond to specific hormones based on their receptor presence.
103
What is an endocrine gland?
Secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream ## Footnote Examples include the thyroid, adrenal, pituitary glands, and pancreas.
104
What is endocrine tissue?
Specialized cells or tissue within an organ that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream ## Footnote Endocrine tissue plays a vital role in regulating bodily functions.
105
List the functions of the endocrine system.
* Growth and development * Reproduction * Regulation of cell metabolism and energy balance * Homeostasis ## Footnote Each function is regulated by specific hormones.
106
Which hormone contributes to physical growth and cell maturation?
Growth hormone (GH) ## Footnote Thyroid hormones also play a role in growth and development.
107
Which hormones control sexual development and reproductive processes?
* Estrogen * Progesterone * Testosterone ## Footnote These hormones are critical for fertility and overall reproductive health.
108
What hormones control the body's metabolic rate?
Thyroid hormones (TSH and T4) ## Footnote These hormones influence energy production, consumption, and storage.
109
True or False: The endocrine system does not play a role in maintaining homeostasis.
False ## Footnote The endocrine system helps maintain internal balance by regulating factors like blood sugar and water balance.
110
Fill in the blank: The endocrine system helps regulate factors like ______, blood pressure, water balance, and calcium levels.
blood sugar ## Footnote Maintaining these factors is essential for overall health.
111
What do the adrenal glands produce in response to stress?
Cortisol and adrenaline ## Footnote These hormones trigger the 'fight or flight' response.
112
Which gland produces hormones that assist in the development of T-Cells?
Thymus gland ## Footnote T-Cells are a type of white blood cell that aids in immune response.
113
What is a negative feedback system?
A system that cancels out change ## Footnote An increase in output decreases the input to maintain balance.
114
What is the first component of a negative feedback system?
Input ## Footnote This is the initial change or stimulus in the system.
115
What role do receptors play in a negative feedback system?
Monitor the variable in question ## Footnote They detect change and send messages to the control center.
116
What is an example of a receptor in the context of body temperature regulation?
Temperature-sensitive receptors in the skin ## Footnote These receptors may detect a drop in body temperature.
117
What is the role of the control center in a negative feedback system?
Processes input and determines action ## Footnote It evaluates the information received from receptors.
118
What are effectors in a negative feedback system?
Organs, tissues, or cells that carry out the response ## Footnote Effectors execute the actions determined by the control center.
119
What is the output in a negative feedback system?
Result of action carried out by effectors ## Footnote For example, if body temperature is too low, effectors would increase heat production.
120
Fill in the blank: The _______ gland produces hormones that assist in the immune response.
Thymus gland
121
What is the mechanism of Direct Communication?
Transmits through gap junctions ## Footnote Involves ions, small somtes, lipid soluble materials, and is limited to adjacent cells of the same type interconnected by connexons.
122
What is the chemical mediator involved in Paracrine Communication?
Paracrines ## Footnote This type of communication transmits through extracellular fluid and affects local areas where paracrine concentrations are relatively high.
123
What is the distribution characteristic of Autocrine Communication?
Limited to the cell that secretes the hormone ## Footnote Autocrine communication transmits through extracellular fluid.
124
What type of chemical mediator is used in Endocrine Communication?
Hormones ## Footnote This type of communication transmits through the bloodstream to target cells in other tissues and organs.
125
What is the primary function of Synaptic Communication?
Transmits across synapses ## Footnote Involves neurotransmitters and is limited to specific areas where target cells must have appropriate receptors.
126
Fill in the blank: Paracrine Communication transmits through _______.
extracellular fluid
127
True or False: Autocrine Communication affects multiple cells in the vicinity.
False ## Footnote Autocrine Communication is limited to the cell that secretes the hormone.
128
What percentage of heat production is attributed to regulating body temperature?
62%
129
What are the three classes of hormones?
Amino Acid Derivatives, Peptide Hormones, Lipid Derivatives ## Footnote Each class has distinct characteristics and functions.
130
What are Amino Acid Derivatives synthesized from?
Tyrosine and Tryptophan ## Footnote These are building blocks of proteins.
131
Name two examples of Amino Acid Derivatives.
Epinephrine (E), Norepinephrine (NE) ## Footnote These are derivatives of Tyrosine.
132
What hormone is derived from Tryptophan?
Melatonin ## Footnote Melatonin plays a role in regulating sleep-wake cycles.
133
What are peptide hormones?
Chains of amino acids ## Footnote They are synthesized as prohormones, which are inactive molecules.
134
What is a prohormone?
An inactive molecule that is converted to an active hormone before or after secretion ## Footnote This process is crucial for the regulation of hormone activity.
135
What are the two classes of Lipid Derivatives?
Eicosanoids and Steroid Hormones ## Footnote These classes have different roles in the body.
136
What is the function of Eicosanoids?
Coordinate cellular activities and affect enzymatic processes ## Footnote They play a critical role in inflammation and immune responses.
137
Where are Steroid Hormones released from?
Reproductive organs ## Footnote They include hormones like estrogen and testosterone.
138
What is a hormone receptor?
A protein molecule in which a particular hormone binds strongly ## Footnote Receptors can be located on plasma membranes or within target cells.
139
True or False: Hormone receptors are only found on the plasma membrane of target cells.
False ## Footnote Hormone receptors can also be located within target cells.
140
What is Down Regulation?
A process in which the presence of a hormone triggers the decrease in the number of hormone receptors ## Footnote Cells become less sensitive to high levels of hormone.
141
What is Up Regulation?
A process in which the absence of a hormone triggers the increase in the number of hormone receptors ## Footnote Cells become more sensitive to low levels of a particular hormone.
142
What are second messengers?
Molecules that appear due to hormone-receptor interaction, including * Cyclic AMP (cAMP) * Cyclic GMP (cGMP) * Calcium ions (Ca2+)
143
What is a G-Protein?
An enzyme complex coupled to a membrane receptor that serves as a link between first and second messenger ## Footnote G-Proteins play a crucial role in signal transduction.
144
How do steroid hormones interact with cells?
They diffuse through the plasma membrane and bind to a receptor in the cytoplasm or nucleus ## Footnote The complex binds to DNA, activating gene expression.
145
Fill in the blank: The process of _______ leads to decreased sensitivity of cells to high hormone levels.
Down Regulation
146
Fill in the blank: The process of _______ increases the sensitivity of cells to low hormone levels.
Up Regulation
147
What is the function of thyroid hormone?
Enters cytoplasm to bind to receptors in the nucleus and activate specific genes, also binds to receptors on mitochondria to accelerate ATP production ## Footnote Thyroid hormone plays a crucial role in metabolism and energy production.
148
What hormones are released by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
Releases 7 peptide hormones ## Footnote These hormones include growth hormone, prolactin, and others that regulate various bodily functions.
149
What hormones are released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
Releases 2 peptide hormones ## Footnote These typically include oxytocin and vasopressin (ADH).
150
Where is the hypothalamus located?
Inferior to the thalamus, superior to the pituitary gland ## Footnote It is a small region of the brain that plays a critical role in hormone regulation.
151
What connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland?
Infundibulum ## Footnote The infundibulum is a stalk that connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland.
152
How does the hypothalamus regulate the functions of the pituitary gland?
Integrates activities of nervous and endocrine systems in 3 ways: * Synthesizes hormones and transports them to the posterior lobe * Secretes regulatory hormones controlling anterior lobe activities * Contains autonomic centers exerting direct neural control over adrenal medulla endocrine cells ## Footnote This regulatory role is crucial for maintaining homeostasis in the body.
153
What is one way the hypothalamus regulates the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
Synthesizes hormones and transports them along axons to the posterior lobe for release into circulation ## Footnote This process ensures that hormones like oxytocin and ADH are released as needed.
154
What do regulatory hormones from the hypothalamus control?
Activities of endocrine cells in target organs from the anterior lobe ## Footnote These hormones influence a variety of physiological processes, including stress response and growth.
155
True or False: The hypothalamus has direct neural control over the endocrine cells of the adrenal medulla.
True ## Footnote This direct control allows for rapid responses to stressors by releasing adrenaline.
156
What is the main organ discussed in the endocrine system?
Thyroid gland ## Footnote The thyroid gland plays a crucial role in regulating metabolism through hormone production.
157
What are the main anatomical components of the thyroid gland?
* Thyroid Follicle * Follicular Cells * Follicular Cavity * C-cells ## Footnote These components are essential for the production and secretion of thyroid hormones.
158
What two hormones make up thyroid hormone?
T3 and T4 ## Footnote T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) are critical for regulating metabolism.
159
What binds to receptors on follicular cells in the thyroid?
TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) ## Footnote TSH stimulates the production and release of thyroid hormones.
160
What process involves iodine uptake in the thyroid gland?
Endocytosis ## Footnote Iodine is transported to the follicular cavity and then taken into follicular cells through endocytosis.
161
What does iodine bind to in the thyroid gland?
Thyroglobulin ## Footnote Thyroglobulin is a precursor for the synthesis of thyroid hormones.
162
How are T3 and T4 released from thyroglobulin?
They are broken apart by lysosomes ## Footnote This process is essential for the activation of thyroid hormones.
163
How are T3 and T4 named?
By the amount of iodine ## Footnote The number of iodine atoms in the molecule determines whether it is T3 or T4.
164
Where do T3 and T4 travel after being released?
In the blood ## Footnote They circulate in the bloodstream to reach target cells throughout the body.
165
What do thyroid hormones stimulate in the body?
Mitochondrial activity ## Footnote Increased mitochondrial activity enhances cellular metabolism and energy production.
166
Fill in the blank: The thyroid hormone is a mix of _______ + 4.
T3 ## Footnote T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) are the two main thyroid hormones.
167
True or False: C-cells are involved in the production of thyroid hormones.
False ## Footnote C-cells primarily produce calcitonin, which is involved in calcium metabolism, not thyroid hormones.
168
What is calcitonin?
A hormone released from C-cells in response to a humoral stimulus.
169
What stimulates the release of calcitonin?
An increase in blood calcium levels.
170
What are the target tissues of calcitonin?
Bones and kidneys.
171
What effect does calcitonin have on bones?
It inhibits osteoclasts.
172
What effect does calcitonin have on kidneys?
It stimulates calcium excretion.
173
What is the parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
A hormone released based on a humoral stimulus.
174
What stimulates the release of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
A decrease in blood calcium levels.
175
What are the target tissues of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
Bones and kidneys.
176
What effect does parathyroid hormone (PTH) have on bones?
It stimulates osteoclasts.
177
What effect does parathyroid hormone (PTH) have on kidneys?
It inhibits calcium excretion.
178
What are the two main regions of the adrenal gland?
Adrenal Cortex and Adrenal Medulla.
179
What are the three zones of the adrenal cortex?
Zona Glomerulosa, Zona Fasciculata, Zona Reticularis.
180
What are mineralocorticoids primarily responsible for?
Regulating sodium and potassium balance ## Footnote Mineralocorticoids, primarily aldosterone, are crucial for maintaining electrolyte balance in the body.
181
Where are mineralocorticoids produced?
Zona glomerulosa ## Footnote The zona glomerulosa is the outermost layer of the adrenal cortex.
182
What triggers the release of mineralocorticoids?
Humoral stimuli such as: * Decrease in Na+ * Increase in K+ * Decrease in H2O volume ## Footnote These humoral factors influence the secretion of aldosterone to regulate fluid and electrolyte balance.
183
What is the primary function of glucocorticoids?
Raising blood glucose levels ## Footnote Glucocorticoids like cortisol play a significant role in glucose metabolism and stress response.
184
Where are glucocorticoids produced?
Zona fasciculata ## Footnote The zona fasciculata is the middle layer of the adrenal cortex that secretes glucocorticoids.
185
What stimulates the release of glucocorticoids?
Hormonal stimulus from ACTH ## Footnote Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is released from the pituitary gland and stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids.
186
What are the primary actions of glucocorticoids?
Stimulate glucose production in the liver and mobilize energy reserves ## Footnote These actions are critical during stress and fasting conditions.
187
What are androgens responsible for?
Development of secondary sex characteristics ## Footnote Androgens are hormones that contribute to male traits and reproductive activity.
188
Where are androgens produced in the adrenal gland?
Zona reticularis ## Footnote The zona reticularis is the innermost layer of the adrenal cortex, responsible for androgen production.
189
What stimulates the release of androgens?
Hormonal stimulus from ACTH ## Footnote Similar to glucocorticoids, androgens are also regulated by ACTH.
190
What are catecholamines?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine ## Footnote Catecholamines are hormones that play a key role in the body's response to stress and are involved in the fight-or-flight response.
191
Where are catecholamines produced?
Adrenal medulla ## Footnote The adrenal medulla is responsible for producing catecholamines as part of the sympathetic nervous system's response.
192
What triggers the release of catecholamines?
Neural stimuli from sympathetic preganglionic neurons ## Footnote This release is part of the body's acute stress response mechanism.
193
True or False: Catecholamines amplify the effects of the sympathetic nervous system.
True ## Footnote Catecholamines enhance and prolong the effects of the sympathetic nervous system during stress responses.
194
What is the primary function of the pancreatic islets?
Endocrine portion of the pancreas
195
What do alpha cells in the pancreatic islets secrete?
Glucagon
196
What do beta cells in the pancreatic islets secrete?
Insulin
197
Insulin and glucagon are released based on _______ stimul.
humoral
198
What condition stimulates beta cells to release insulin?
Hyperglycemia
199
What is the effect of insulin on glucose uptake?
Stimulates glucose uptake
200
What is enhanced by insulin production?
ATP production
201
Insulin promotes the formation of which substances?
* Glycogen * Triglycerides
202
What condition stimulates alpha cells to release glucagon?
Hypoglycemia
203
What is the primary function of glucagon?
Increase blood glucose levels
204
Glucagon promotes the breakdown of glycogen and triglycerides, known as _______.
Gluconeogenesis
205
What hormone is released by the kidneys?
Erythropoietin ## Footnote Erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell production in bone marrow and maintains the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.
206
What is the function of leptin?
Appetite control ## Footnote Leptin is released by adipose tissue.
207
Which hormone is released by the ovaries in females?
Estrogen ## Footnote Estrogen functions to develop eggs.
208
What do natriuretic peptides do?
Decrease blood pressure ## Footnote Natriuretic peptides are released by the heart.
209
What hormone is responsible for sperm development?
Testosterone ## Footnote Testosterone is released by the testes.
210
Erythropoietin stimulates _______ production in bone marrow.
red blood cell ## Footnote This hormone helps maintain the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.
211
Leptin is released by _______ tissue.
adipose ## Footnote Its primary function is appetite control.
212
Estrogen functions to develop _______.
eggs ## Footnote This hormone is specifically released by the ovaries in females.
213
True or False: Natriuretic peptides are released by the kidneys.
False ## Footnote They are released by the heart and help decrease blood pressure.
214
Testosterone is released by the _______.
testes ## Footnote It is essential for sperm development.

A&P II (4 decks)

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