Unit 1 Flashcards
Why do we use graphs?
- To visually represent data
- To find patterns in data
What are five types of graphs and their specific purpose?
- Line: change over time
- Scatter: correlation of variables
- Bar: comparing groups
- Histogram: distribution of data
- Pie: parts of a whole
What are three elements of a good graph?
Titles for axis (units included)
Title of the graph
Correct axis
Overlapping Error Bars
The data from 2+ samples is NOT significantly different
The data shares overlapping values
Non-overlapping error bars
The data from 2+ samples IS significantly different
The data doesn’t share overlapping values.
Chi-square test
Used to determine whether the observed data from an experiment is the same as the data that would be predicted
Null hypothesis
OBSERVED=EXPECTED. states that there’s no significant difference between the expected and observed data
Alternative hypothesis
states a significant difference between the observed and expected data; implies that there is “something” causing the difference
Chi-Square Formula
X^2 = sum of (observed - expected)^2 over expected
degrees of freedom
of categories -1
X^2 value > p-value
reject your null hypothesis
X^2 value < p-value
fail to reject your null hypothesis
X^2 value = 0
accept your null hypothesis
Methyl - CH3
Nonpolar, no charge, hydrophobic, neutral pH
Hydroxyl - OH
polar, partially positive, hydrophilic, basic
Carbonyl -CO-
polar, partially negative, hydrophilic, acidic
Carboxyl - COOH
polar, negative after ionization, hydrophilic, acid
Phosphate - PO4H2
polar, -2 after ionization, hydrophilic, acid
Amine - NH2
polar, positive after ionization, hydrophilic base
Sulfhydryl - SH
polar, hydrophilic, slightly positive, neutral pH
Hydrocarbon
nonpolar, no charge, hydrophobic, neutral pH
Hydrolysis
A chemical reaction that involves an organic molecule reacting with H2O.
H2O breaks a covalent bond of a polymer into smaller molecules that contain the remnants of OH and H attached to them
Catabolism
Dehydration Synthesis
A chemical reaction that involves 2 organic molecules that are going to be connected by the removal of OH and H
H2O is found on the 2 organic molecules connected by a covalent bond
Anabolism
Carbohydrate elements
CHO (1:2:1 ratio)
What functional group is prominent in sugars?
Hydroxyl
Carbs: mono and polymers name
Mono- and polysaccharides
Carbs functions
quick energy
In plants, cellulose provides structure to the cell wall
In animals, the liver stores glucose in the form of glycogen
OHs make sugars polar/+/ hydrophilic
Lipids: elements
CHO no specific ratio
#C > #O
sometimes P
Lipids mono and polymers name
fatty acid/ glycerol
no specific name for polymers
What type of bond is present in carbs?
glycosidic
What type of bond is present in lipids?
Ester bond. The structure of an ester includes a carbon with one double bond to oxygen and one single bond to oxygen.
Functions of lipids
-long term energy storage
- temp control/ regulation; insulator
- protecting organs (kidneys)
- amphiphatic (phobic + philic); phospholipid
- steroid : hormones (long term and long distance messengers)
Nucleic acids: elements
P, O, C, H, N
nucleic acids: mono- and polymer names
nucleotide and polynucleotide
What is nucleotide made of?
phosphate (polar, acid)
pentose sugar
nitrogenous base (A, T, C, G, U)
Purines
two rings; A and G
Pyrimidines
one ring; C, T, U
What type of bonds is present in nucleic acids?
phosphodiester bond (Carbon 3 and phosphate)
Nucleic acid functions
DNA stores genetic info
RNA copies info from DNA and gives it to ribosomes for protein synthesis
ATP is the molecule that carries energy for cellular functions
Proteins elements
CHON,
sometimes S
proteins mono and polymer names
Amino acids
Polypeptides/ amino acid chain
Every protein has these two groups
carboxyl and amine
What group determines overall characteristics in proteins?
R-group
What bonds do proteins have?
peptide bonds (CO - NH)
Protein functions
builds muscle (body structures)
natural catalysts (enzymes): speed up chemical rxns
hormones (long distance/ short term signals)
protein channels in the cell membranes
expression of genes
neutralize antibodies
What types of bonds are present in a primary structure proteins?
peptide bonds
How secondary protein structure forms?
structure folds on itself and makes hydrogen bonds between carbonyls and amines
Two types of secondary structure
Alpha helix and beta sheet
Describe tertiary protein structure
- 2 or more secondary structures
- R-groups help to fold and stabilize the larger structure.
What types of bonds are present in tertiary structure proteins?
Hydrogen bonding
Disulfide bond
R-group (hydrophobic interaction)
Ionic bond
Denaturation
loss of structure in any molecule
What causes denaturation
- High temp
- pH change
- Radiation
Describe quaternary structure
2 or more tertiary structures
all types of bonds are necessary (peptide, HB, R-group)
