Unit 1 Flashcards
developmental psychology
The study of change and stability throughout the lifespan.
What are the 2 major goals for developmental psychology?
- to better understand human nature
- to improve the lives of children and their families
prenatal
conception to birth
infancy
birth - 3 years
early childhood
3 - 6 years
middle childhood
6 - 11 years
adolescence
11 - 18/19
early/maturing adulthood
19/20 - 25
adulthood
25 years +
What are the 3 main areas of development
- physical
- social and emotional
- cognitive
What did Plato believe in relation to the nature vs nurture debate?
Argued that at birth our body “traps the mind” and that knowledge is already determined at birth
What did Aristotle believe in relation to the nature vs nurture debate?
Stressed the importance of experience, argued that development occurs due to the experiences we go through
What did Locke believe in relation to the nature vs nurture debate?
Argued that humans are born a “blank-slate” and that experiences shape our story, beliefs and feelings
What did Rousseau believe in relation to the nature vs nurture debate?
Argued that even at birth, we have a sense of right and wrong and that we develop according to a “plan”
Nature
biological endowment/our genes
nurture
physical and social environment
What is the current view on the nature vs nurture debate?
Both interplay with each other to influence development - epigenetics
Developmental change occurs 2 ways
continuously (gradually) and/or discontinuously (through different stages) – the stage theories of development are discontinuous.
3 mechanisms for developmental change?
- biological processes
- experiences
- timing of experiences
4 ways of gathering data
- self/other reports
- naturalistic observation
- structured observation
- physiological measures
self/other report
surveys, questionnaires, interviews, standardized tests
Naturalistic observation
Observing behaviour of interest in its natural setting. 2 measures that are often employed are time sampling and event sampling.
time sampling
When researchers record all behaviours during predetermined time period (i.e., recording behaviour every 5 minutes)
event sampling
When researchers record particular behaviours every time the event of interest occurs but do not record other unnecessary behaviours.
structured observation
Research sets up a situation to evoke the behaviour of interest.
physiological measures
heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation, use of neuro-imaging
EEG/ERP
measure the electrical activity in the brain
MRI/fMRI
Measures blood flow in the brain using magnetic fields
NIRS
measures blood flow in the brain using shinning lights
What are some key advantages of self/other reposts
- can probe inner experiences, motivations and emotions
- easy to administer
What are some key advantages of naturalistic observation
- reflect real-world behaviour
- can be affordable
Structured observation
- Useful for rare behaviour
- same situation for everyone - more control/equivalence
physiological measures
- access biological underpinnings
- does not require language/behaviour
reliability
consistency, repeatability of measures
validity
measures what the researcher things it’s measuring (accuracy). Are we getting at what we want to get at?
Internal validity
whether conditions internal to the design of the study allow for accurate measurements
external validity
whether the findings generalize beyond the study/original assessment
correlational designs
examine the relationship between variables (i.e., relationship between diet and aggressive behaviour)
correlation coefficients
measures the association between 2 variables (direction - either positive or negative, strength - 0 to +/- 1)
experimental designs
Are able to examine and determine cause-effect relationships. researchers manipulate the IV to try and elicit a response in the DV.
longitudinal designs
When some participants are measured repeatedly across time and at different ages takes a long time and a lot of money
cross-sectional designs
Use different groups of participants at different ages but measured at the same time different behaviours across different ages
sequential designs
control for the difficulties with cross-sectional and longitudinal designs by following multiple samples of different ages over time rare, time consuming and expensive
Microgenetic designs
Track development over a short period of time, over closely spaced sessions. Generally used to look at training effects or the learning of a skill (i.e., researchers would observe the skill every week/5 days a week etc)
What are 4 individual differences observed across development?
- genetic differences
- different experiences/environments
- different responses to experiences/environments
- different choices of experiences/environments
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model
Looks at how much context matters to development. Every individual is influenced by factors within different layers of society (microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems, macrosystems)
Name disadvantages of naturalistic observation
- hard to observe rare behaviour
- provides little insight into why behaviour occurs
- difficult to control
- observer bias
name disadvantages of structured observation
- not natural behaviours
- provides little information about inner experiences
- observer bias
- a scary environment for children (might be unwilling to participate)
- ethical concerns (instilling fear in children)
name disadvantages of self/other reports
- cannot guarantee accuracy
- may be biassed responses
- younger children are unable to fill out questionnaires
- children might be shy
- children tend to have memory difficulties and can be easily influenced.
name disadvantages of physiological measures
- can be expensive
- can be hard to interpret results
- child might have a hard time staying still
- machines can be loud and scary
- only participants are kids who are willing to participate (generalizable?)
Name challenges that may occur in researching development (challenge of the “population”)
- ethics (avoiding physical or psychological harm)
- cooperation (children may be unwilling to participate)
- selection (kids who are willing or whose parents signed them up - might affect the generalizability of results)
Name challenges that may occur in researching development (challenges in studying “changes with age”)
- measure equivalence (measures recorded need to be equivalent across ages)
- understanding what causes change (controlling for possible confounding variables/moderating variables)
Why do we use theories?
- organize thinking
- form predictions
- inspire research questions
- shape applications
Assimilation
New information viewed through existing schemas (i.e., new information registers under already formed schemas even if it doesn’t match)
Accommodation
Schemas are adapted according to new experiences (i.e., new information alters existing schema to form a new one)
equilibrium
When new information fits into existing schema
disequilibrium
when new information challenges out of schema
Name Piaget’s theories?
- sensorimotor stage (0-2)
- pre-operational stage (2-7)
- concrete operational stage (7-12)
- formal operational stage (12+)
What accomplishments exist within the sensorimotor stage?
- Kids start to learn to accommodate new information with existing knowledge.
- Object permanence (children begin to understand near the end of this stage that objects remain even when hidden).
What gaps exist within the sensorimotor stage?
- children still have a hard time representing the world mentally. Enact through the world physically.
What accomplishments exist in the pre-operational stage?
- Begin to understand symbolic representation (pretend play, language, drawing)
what gaps exist in the pre-operational stage?
- conservation
- Centration
- irreversibility
- egocentrism
- classification
conservation (pre-operational stage)
children have a hard time understanding that physical properties do not change despite changes in form or appearance
centration (pre-operational stage)
Children tend to focus on one aspect - focus on aspects like the length, height, shape of the object without understanding that the mass and volume remain the same
Irreversibility (pre-operational stage)
Children cannot mentally reverse direction in their minds - if water is switched between different sized cups they think the amount of water has changed
Egocentrism (pre-operational stage)
Children posses an inability to see other people’s viewpoints and will answer questions from their own perspectives.
classification (pre-operational stage)
Children struggle with understanding the categorization of things and hierarchies of categories (i.e., are there more yellow flowers or just more flowers in all?)
what are accomplishments that exist in the concrete operational stage?
- Children are able to use mental logic to think about concrete things
- Children begin to understand the law of conservation
- Children pass egocentrism and classification tasks
what are some gaps that exist in the concrete operational stage?
- Children have a hard time reasoning about abstract concepts and thinking hypothetically (only think about things that fit into their idea of “reality”)
what are some accomplishments that exist in the formal operational stage (12+)?
- Gain the ability to reason about abstract concepts
- Reason about “hypothetical” properties
- Logically examine evidence and test hypotheses (pendulum task)
What are positive factors of Piaget’s theory?
- He inspired others to investigate children’s cognition, to explore the mechanisms of cognitive change
- Accurate descriptions of children’s behaviour
- Instilled the idea of “natural limits” to a given age
- applied to education
What are some of the criticisms of Piaget’s theory?
- Inadequate specificity of mechanisms
- overemphasized clear-cut stages
- underestimates the influence of others, of culture
- accurate descriptions of children’s behaviours but doesn’t look at their understanding
Zone of proximal development (Vygotsky)
The “range” of tasks too difficult to do on your own but which are possible with the help of a skilled other. The learning that occurs takes place through “scaffolding”
Scaffolding
Where a “teacher” (parent. peer) adjust the level of support they offer to fit the learner’s needs. Giving help (just enough) but no more than is needed. Exists in all cultures but is different across cultures.
What is behind “language” for Vygotsky?
Argued that it is the most important tool for cognitive development and gives learners access to others knowledge. Also allows learners to think about the world.
Private speech
Talking to yourself when doing something difficult (out loud or internally. Helps to shape and develop thinking.
What are some positive aspects of Vygotsky’s theory?
- Placed an emphasis on culture
- Emphasized the role of teaching
- Impacted educational settings
What are some critiques to Vygotsky’s theory
- Overemphasized language (said it was the MOST important)
- Undervalues the role of biology (genetics are involved)
- Was vague about mechanisms of cognitive change (what happens in the brain when scaffolding occurs?)
Name similarities between Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories
- focus on the child and development
- argued that children are active (not passive) learners
Name differences between Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories
- piaget (learning through self-discover) vs Vygotsky (social learning)
- Piaget (discontinuous change) vs Vygotsky (continuous change)
- Piaget (universal process of development) vs Vygotsky (development is culturally situated)
- Piaget (language is not that important) vs Vygotsky (language us KEY to learning)
Theory of mind
The ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others; understanding that mental states influence behaviour
name the 3 components of theory of mind
- Must understand that others have mental states and that these guide behaviour
- Must understand that others mental states can differ from your own
- Must understand that mental states can be accurate or inaccurate to reality
4 theories of theory of mind?
- theory theory
- stimulation theory
- modular theory
- development of executive function and language.
Theory theory
The notion that children develop a theory of mental states. suggests that children initially develop a theory that people have desires and that these guide behaviour (development grows from understanding that people have desires, beliefs and then false beliefs
Simulation theory
Role-taking, using imagination to put oneself in other people’s shoes. Helps development of theory of mind.
Modular theory
Nature based theory that argues that there are brain systems that underlie theory of mind. These brain systems develop in preschool.
Why is it that a higher level of executive function may aid in the development of theory of mind?
In order to succeed at a task, children need to learn to ignore their own opinions about the situation to focus on the perspectives of others.
Why is it that a higher level of language development may aid in the development of theory of mind?
When an individual can fully understand the task and there are no language or cultural barriers in place it is easier for higher order cognitive processing to occur.
race
socially meaningful component influencing the experiences of different people
At this age, children begin to explicitly characterize race (able to reason about skin colour as a stable trait)
3-4 years old
Explain the “switched at birth reasoning” study
children are shown 2 sets of parents (one black set and one white set), children are asked what their babies would look like (either black or white), children assign at random showing that they don’t yet have a stable understanding of race.
Essentialism
Thinking about social categories as “biologically” internal and something that is informative as traits of someone inside the group (children begin to think like this at about 10 yrs but younger for children from marginalized societies)
Attitudes a person consciously endorses and can report
explicit attitudes
explicit attitudes for dominant racial groups
- in-group positivity
- out-group negativity
explicit attitudes for marginalized groups
- in-group negativity
- out-group positivity
attitudes that influence a person’s feelings or beliefs at an unconscious level
implicit attitudes
Implicit association test (IAT)
measures the strength of association between concept (white vs black) and attribute (good vs bad). The faster the response = the stronger the implicit association
Implicit attitudes among dominant racial group
- in-group bias (doesn’t change over time)
implicit attitudes among marginalized groups
- no in-group preference or out-group preference
Why do people from marginalized groups show no implicit in-group or out-group bias?
Their attitudes about race are both shaped by predispositions for in-group biasses and influenced through social norms (The 2 cancel each other out).
Who is most likely to voice implicit biasses? (children or adults?)
children (tend to have strong in-group preferences > the white children / Do not have a preference > the black preference)
Which biasses are outside of awareness?
implicit biasses
Name critiques of the implicit association test (IAT)
- Side/order effects
- reliability (responses impacted by context)
- meaningfulness (are predictions generalizable?)
How are attitudes about race aquired?
- In-groups (automatically acquired, voluntary bias for liking others from same community?)
- social norms (overt messages, cultural stereotypes, authority figures)
Do LatinX individuals show preferences for individuals from their in-groups?
No (behave similar to marginalized groups)
what are the attitudes (implicit and explicit) about bi or multi-cultural individuals?
- explicit preference = no huge difference
- implicit preference = white (strong preference), black (no preference), bi/multiracial individuals (moderate preference)
The name of the paradigm where creation of groups (with only simple differences) can shape group preferences.
Minimal group paradigm (members of each group will identify the most with their own people)
What works in adults to reduce in-group bias?
- personal contacts with out-group members (i.e., working with others who are not from one’s own in-group)
- encountering positive examples of out-group members (i.e., marginalized movie stars)
Is it difficult to reduce racial bias among adults?
yes, and the effects of trials are not strong…children might be more malleable and thus should be the individuals to focus on
Language
A system of symbols used to communicate. Combines meaningless elements (sounds and words) into structures that convey meaning.
The basic sounds of language
phonemes
The smallest units of meaning in language
Morphemes
meaning behind the words
semantics
Rules for combining words into meaningful and interpretive sequences
syntax
The rules for how language is used to communicate
pragmatics
Egocentric speech
Piaget’s word referring to reflecting children’s egocentric thinking
Monologues
Running discourse to oneself/talking to oneself
collective monologue
When 2 individuals are speaking together but they are not forming any conversation - there is no purpose to the conversation
Private speech
Vygotsky’s term for when children talk to themselves (similar to Piaget) but places more emphasis on the cognitive development
Young children (1-3) tend to ….. failed communication
repeat
Children (3-5) tend to ….. failed communication
repair
At which age do children begin to adjust their language to younger vs older children, to children vs adults etc?
4 years
different styles of language associated with particular settings/roles (i.e., talking to boyfriend on a date vs talking to guests at work)
Registers
Forms of language that vary with regions or groups of people (geographically). Language forms are still mutually intelligible
Dialects
African American english (AAE)
A language with characteristic forms and rules and a distinct vocabulary. Young children who speak this form of language are often able to code-switch easily to adapt dialect to the situation. Decreased use of this form of language tends to relate to increasing academic success.
Simultaneous/crib billinguals
Individuals who learn 2 languages from birth (i.e., french and english)
Sequential billinguals
Individuals who learn 1 language and then acquire the second language later on in development
code switching/mixing
The ability to adjust language used in different contexts with different conversational partners. In some cases, if the partner is comfortable in both languages, the child will often mix words from the languages (“Franglish”).
what did Pearl and Lambert discover in their research on bilingualism?
They found that bilingual children were greater in cognitive abilities than monolingual children as it provides them with more “mental flexibility”
What are 2 advantages of bilingualism?
- stronger affinity for perspective taking
- higher levels of executive function
