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Neurobiology > Unit 1 > Flashcards

Unit 1 Flashcards

1
Q

ventricles

A

where cerebral spinal fluid moves through brain

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2
Q

grey matter

A

cortex
neural cell bodies and dendrites
nonmyelinated
processing and cognition

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3
Q

white matter

A

glial cells and myelinated axons
transmits signals
action potentials

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4
Q

gyri

A

ridge in brain

hump surrounded by sulci

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5
Q

sulci

A

divit in brain

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6
Q

fissure

A

groove of natural division

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7
Q

phrenology

A

ancient myth of bumps on skull indicating larger portion of brain- more specialized in that area
“map” on skull

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8
Q

neurons

A

conduct signals

10% of brain cells

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9
Q

glia cells

A

help neurons- hold things together
responsible for ion balances
90% of brain cells

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10
Q

experimental ablation method

A

make lesion on brain then study behavior

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11
Q

aphasia

A

inability to speak

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12
Q

broca’s aphasia

A

can understand, but not fluent
hard to GENERATE words
effect of stroke- frontal lobe, left hemisphere

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13
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

fluent, but don’t make sense
cant CONTROL speech
effect of stroke- left temporal lobe

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14
Q

object agnosia

A

cannot name an object

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15
Q

distinguishing parts of brain

A

anatomy- architecture/connection

function- recordings/behavior

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16
Q

fMRI

A

visualize what parts of brain active during certain tasks

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17
Q

somatosensation

A

perception based on senses
mice whiskers- more touch brain
bats audiology- more audio brain

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18
Q

why be kind when animal experimenting

A

stress changes brain chemistry

data inaccurate

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19
Q

similarities between mammal brains

A

structure- hemispheres, cortex, cerebellum

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20
Q

differences between mammal brains

A

size
gyrification
size of localized regions
-Ex: mice have larger portion devoted to touch (whiskers)

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21
Q

cortex

A

outermost covering of brain

memory, perception, attention, awareness, thought, language, consciousness

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22
Q

cerebellum

A

back of brain

motor control, coordination, precision, timing

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23
Q

Ramon y Cajal

A

visual system pathway
retinal connections
shape and position of a neuron
origin and destinations in neural network

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24
Q

photoreceptors

A

cells in retina responding to photons (light)

rods and cones

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25
Q

ganglion cells

A

provide entire input for vision

influenced by many photoreceptors

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26
Q

visual pathway

A

photoreceptors -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells

ganglion axons make optic nerve

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27
Q

cell body (soma)

A

nucleus and other intracellular organelles

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28
Q

axon

A

connects cell body to target cells

typically small and hard to see

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29
Q

dendrite

A

branches upon which incoming fibers make connection

receiving stations for excitation or inhibition

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30
Q

resting potential

A

inside of cell is negative relative to outside

-65 mV

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31
Q

depolarize

A

make inside cell less negative

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32
Q

hyperpolarize

A

make inside cell more negative

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33
Q

graded potential

A

generated by extrinsic physical stimuli
short spread b/c passive
**decrease in amplitude as travel toward cell body

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34
Q

action potential (nerve impulse)

A

graded potentials are large enough to reach threshold and depolarize the cell
propagate rapidly over long distances
all or nothing response
**fixed in amplitude and duration

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35
Q

extracellular recordings

A

put electrode near neurons
signals sent by neurons can be heard
detecting current as neuron delivers output
lots of spikes (represent AP)

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36
Q

intracellular recording

A

capillary into neuron membrane
clear waveforms
single spike for AP

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37
Q

whole cell patch recording

A

rupture membrane to record inside cell

clearest technique

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38
Q

receptor field

A

region of sensory neuron where presence of stimuli will alter firing of that neuron
larger field = more area to detect, but less precision

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39
Q

all or nothing response

A

once initiate, AP amplitude and duration are fixed

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40
Q

refractory period

A

after AP is fired

second impulse at same site cannot be competed until first is completed

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41
Q

Action potential path

A

resting potential -> stimulus causes cell to depolarize (reach threshold) -> AP initiated -> Na rush into cell (inside + now) and K out -> AP propagates along axon to terminal -> transmitter released -> refractory period to repolarize

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42
Q

frequency

A

indicates intensity of stimulus
limited by refractory period
more effective stimulus -> higher frequency
all AP are the same size, so frequency tells intensity

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43
Q

synapse

A

structure at which one cell hands its information to the next

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44
Q

synaptic cleft

A

between pre and post synaptic terminals
contains extracellular fluid
cannot be transversed simply by currents generated in sensory receptor

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45
Q

Synaptic cleft mechanism

A
  1. ) photoreceptor terminal releases neurotransmitter from presynaptic vesicles
  2. ) transmitter diffuses across cleft and interacts with chemical receptor (protein) embedded in membrane of post-synaptic cell
  3. ) local graded potential spreads to terminals
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46
Q

more neurotransmitter released

A

higher concentration in cleft
larger # activated receptors
larger local potential

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47
Q

excitatory signal

A

if enough to cause depolarization AP is fired

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48
Q

inhibitory signal

A

suppresses release of neurotransmitter

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49
Q

electrical synapses

A

pre and post synaptic membranes are linked by channels that connect intracellular fluids of the two cells and allows electrical potentials to spread directly rom cell to cell w/o a chemical transmitter

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50
Q

integration

A

neurons take account of influences arriving from diverse inputs to create own new messages with new meaning

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51
Q

Hubel and Wiesel

A

showed that cortical neurons do not respond simply to light or dark on retina; rather, activation depends on pattern of retinal illuminations

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52
Q

retinal illuminations

A

specific and distinctive patterns are required and most effective stimuli for different types of cortical cells
Ex: one cell may only fire if detects horizontal light

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53
Q

generation of complex stimulus

A

progressive integration of information derived from lower order units results in higher order central neurons

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54
Q

transformation of visual information (increasing complexity)

A
  1. ) photoreceptor indicates a change in light
  2. ) signal in ganglion indicates presence of contrast
  3. ) signal in cortical neuron indicates orientation
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55
Q

columnar arrangement

A

as you go through the cortical layers (6 of them) processing of a stimuli remains the same

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56
Q

axon hillock

A

connects cell body to axon
where impulse originates from
if reaches threshold fires AP down axon

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57
Q

charge location relative to membrane

A

charges congregate around membrane
- inside
+ outside

58
Q

phospholipid layer and membrane potential

A

thin so negative charges line inside and positive line the outside

59
Q

ion channel

A

protein molecules that span the membrane and form pores through which ions can pass

60
Q

passive diffusion

A

ions (K, NA, Ca, Cl) driven through channels by concentration gradients and by electrical potential

61
Q

transport molecules

A
  • pumps and transporters
  • move substances across membrane AGAINST electrochemical gradients
  • return ions back to proper side of membrane
  • carry glucose and amino acids across
62
Q

ion channel gate

A

opens and closes to control ion movement through channel

63
Q

what causes gate opening

A
  • membrane potential

- binding of ligand

64
Q

concentration gradient

A

ions move in or out of the cell based on trying to achieve equal concentrations inside and outside of the cell

65
Q

how is the resting membrane potential maintained

A

ion pumps- sodium potassium pump

66
Q

cytosol of cell in resting membrane

A

sodium concentration low; potassium concentration high

67
Q

Na+/K+ pump mechanism

A
  1. ) 3 Na+ ions on cytosolic side bind to pump
  2. ) ATP transfers phosphate group to pump (need energy to move Na+ against gradient)
  3. ) phosphorylation causes change in pump conformation
  4. ) Na+ ions released outside cell
  5. ) pump facing outside cell exposes K+ binding sites
  6. ) 2 K+ bind to pump
  7. ) phosphate group released
  8. ) pump return to original conformation
  9. ) K+ released inside cell and cycle repeats
68
Q

inhibition

A
  • big role in generating rhythmic output
  • GABA, glycine, and Cl- channel common
  • Ex: rhythm of walking inhibiting one leg, while stepping with other
69
Q

diffusion

A
  • must have a channel and gradient
  • each ION has OWN channel
  • once reach equilibrium, no net diffusion
70
Q

Protein channels

A
  • highly specific
  • composed of 4-5 subunits
  • open or closed conformation
71
Q

subunits

A
  • strings of amino acids held together in specific structure
  • determine what channel is capable of
  • often change morphology w/ ligand binding
72
Q

subunit amino acid residue in membrane

A
  • must be nonpolar

- don’t want to react w/ water, so stuck in place

73
Q

what causes channels to open

A
  1. ) ligands
  2. ) change in membrane voltage
  3. ) physical deformation
74
Q

transmitter gated ion channel

A
  • respond to ligand binding
  • ligands can bind inside or outside
  • often cause change in subunit conformation
  • ACh, serotonin, glutamate, etc
75
Q

voltage gated channels

A
  • change membrane voltage

- Ex: sodium potassium pump

76
Q

mechanoreceptors

A
  • responsible for channel opening in response to physical deformation
  • Ex: wriggling of hair cells in ears cause channel to open (sound and position of head)
77
Q

current

A

movement of charge accomplished by neurons

78
Q

conductance

A
  • ability to migrate (high conductance -> low resistivity)

- ability of channel to pass current

79
Q

Ohm’s law

A

I = gV

  • I- current
  • g- conductance
  • V- potential
80
Q

patch clamp technique

A

suction and isolate membrane channel; then put in dish with ions and measure current w/ electrode (ideal for single-channel current detection)

81
Q

How to only get recording for channel of interest during patch

A

-have to induce blockage of other channels with poison b/c patch often result in sucking multiple channels

82
Q

tetrodotoxin (TTX)

A
  • from puffer fish
  • selectively blocks Na+ channels (occludes pore)
  • would allow for recording of K+ channels only
83
Q

kinetic behavior channel

A

duration of closed and open states

84
Q

driving force

A
  • difference between the membrane potential and the equilibrium potential
  • higher driving force -> more push
85
Q

two factors influencing conductance

A
  1. ) membrane permeability

2. ) concentration of ions in the region of the channel

86
Q

channel permeability

A

ease at which ions can pass through the open channel

87
Q

open channel

A

permeability

88
Q

permeability + ions

A

conductance

89
Q

reverse potential for K+ currents

A
  • if cell receives applied negative voltage, the potential outward movement K+ is reduced
  • completely retarded if voltage more negative than -80 mV
90
Q

K+ currents w/ positive applied voltage

A

if the cell receives applied positive voltage, the potential gradient accelerates the K+ out of the cell (increasing current amp)

91
Q

equilibrium potential

A
  • where concentration and electrical gradients are balanced (at equilibrium)
  • electrical gradient balances tendency for concentration gradient to drive ions into or out of cell
  • driving force is 0
  • ions diffuse in or out of cell until reach
92
Q

equilibrium potential K+

A
  • 80 mV
  • channel opening hyperpolarizes resting cell
  • flow outward to make more negative
93
Q

equilibrium potential Na+

A

62 mV

  • channel opening depolarizes cell
  • flow in to make more positive
94
Q

equilibrium potential Cl-

A
  • 67.5 mV
  • channel opening hyperpolarizes cell (inhibits)
  • flow inward to make more negative
95
Q

equilibrium potential Ca2+

A

123 mV

  • channel opening depolarizes cell
  • flow inward to make more positive
96
Q

Nernst Equation bottom line

A
  1. ) Ions diffuse DOWN concentration gradient trying to reach equilibrium potential
  2. ) passive process
  3. ) applies to single ion species at a time
  4. ) point of equilibrium between diffusion and electrical forces for ion
97
Q

valence for ion species (Z)

A
  • K+ = 1

- Ca2+ = 2

98
Q

Cl- channel opening

A
  • resting membrane potential is -65 mV
  • Cl- equilib potential is -67.5 mV
  • Cl- diffuses into the cell to make it more negative (hyperpolarize)
  • inhibits
99
Q

nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR)

A
  • ligand activated channel
  • activated by ACh release from presynaptic nerve terminals
  • when activated, open to form channels through which cations can enter or leave post-syntaptic cell
100
Q

mutations in receptor protein

A
  • some affected ligand binding -> channel inactivation
  • some affected ion selectivity
  • some affected channel conductance
101
Q

Proof that M2 helices line open channel pore

A
  • mutations affecting selectivity and conductance were located on M2 helices (line inside of pore)
  • replacing serines with alanines reduced channel conductance and binding affinity
102
Q

hydrophilic amino acids

A
  • serines and threonines

- exposed to aqueous pore

103
Q

hydrophobic isoleucines

A
  • alanines

- nestled against membrane lipid

104
Q

electron microscopy

A

reveals general shape and orientation of receptor in membrane

105
Q

polar substituents within pore

A

higher channel conductance

106
Q

increasing side chain volume in pore

A

decrease conductance

107
Q

pore differences in charge selectivity (anions vs. cations)

A
  • related to sign of charged residues along ion pathway

- mutations can chance ion selectivity

108
Q

voltage-activated channels

A
  • activated by cell membrane depolarization or repolarization
  • Na+, K+, and Ca2+ channels
109
Q

selectivity filter

A
  • four inner channel links combine to form restricted passe responsible for ion selectivity of voltage-activated channels
  • filter formed at extracellular opening
110
Q

selectivity for potassium

A
  • achieved by size and molecular composition of selectivity filter
  • pore diameter accomidates dehydrated potassium
  • ions that are too small can’t be dehydrated
  • ions that are too large don’t fit
111
Q

why Na+ cannot pass through K+ channel

A
  • in order for K+ to pass it must be dehydrated, which is achieved by exposed oxygen atoms
  • Na+ is too small for its hydration shell to make contact with the 4 oxygen atoms simultaneously, so it cannot be dehydrated
112
Q

how to increase pore conductance

A

-replace neutral amino acid residues with those that are opposite in charge of the desired ion to pass

113
Q

voltage-activated gating

A

occurs when depolarization causes displacement of charges of the pore helices, resulting in conformation changes and opening of conducting pathway from channel pore to cytoplasm

114
Q

inactivate

A
  • many voltage-sensitive channels inactivate following activation
  • cytoplasmic residues move to mouth of pore, blocking channel access
115
Q

how can you change the AP of a living cell

A

-make the amp higher by adding Na+ to extracellular environment

116
Q

why need electrolytes during exercise

A

-have to replenish Na+ levels, so AP can continue to be fired

117
Q

Botox

A
  • degrades SNARE protein, which prevents ACh release at neuromuscluar junction
  • prevents presynaptic membrane vesicles from fusing with postsynaptic membrane
118
Q

neuromuscular junction reliability

A
  1. ) large synapse
  2. ) located peripherally
  3. ) lots of synaptic vesicles full of ACh
  4. ) lots of surface area
119
Q

organophosphates and sarin

A

nerve gases that disrupt AChE at neuromuscular junctions

120
Q

neuropharmacology

A

-method of studying receptors by observing how ligand binding impacts receptor

121
Q

antagonist

A

works against the receptor

122
Q

agonist

A

natural ligand for the receptor

123
Q

ionotropic receptor

A
  • receptor with an ion channel attached

* nicotinic and glutamate receptors

124
Q

2 types of cholinergic (ACh) receptors

A
  1. ) nicotinic

2. ) muscarinic

125
Q

nicotinic receptor

A
  • transmitter gated ion channel
  • ionotropic receptor
  • nicotine is agonist
  • curare is antagonist
126
Q

metabotropic receptor

A
  • G protein coupled receptor
  • binding of ligand releases G protein, which stimulates other proteins down the line (may or may not be channels)
  • muscarinic receptor
127
Q

muscarinic receptor

A
  • muscarine- agonist
  • altropine- antagonist
  • does not contain a channel- metabotropic receptor
128
Q

temporal summation

A
  • neuron receives increased frequency of impulse from a single location (multiple inputs from same presynaptic cell)
  • results in greater stimulation than single input
129
Q

spatial summation

A

-neuron receives inputs from multiple presynaptic cells, resulting in greater AP

130
Q

membrane resistance

A
  • walls of a hose
  • increase membrane resistance -> increase conductance b/c harder for charge to escape
  • Achieved through myelination (reduces capacitance)
131
Q

internal resistance

A
  • resistance in the direction of flow

- increase internal resistance -> decrease AP conductance

132
Q

3 criteria for a cell to remain stable

A
  1. ) intracellular and extracellular must be electrically neutral- charges balanced
  2. ) cell must be osmotically balanced
  3. ) no net movement of any ion into/out of cell
133
Q

model cell

A
  • impermeable to Na+ and internal anions
  • permeable to K+ and Cl-
  • Na+ and Cl- in highest [ ] outside
  • K+ and anion highest [ ] inside
  • membrane permeable to K+ and Cl-
134
Q

membrane as a capacitor

A
  • as K+ ions diffuse out of the cell, the anions line up along the inner edge of the membrane and are attracted to the K+ ions extracellularly
  • the membrane acts as a capacitor between the mutual attraction, separating and storing charge
135
Q

mechanism for ACh receptor channel

A
  • when channel is closed (gated), pore is occluded by ring of M2 helices
  • channel activation (2 ACh binding) -> M2 helices swing outward and open pore
136
Q

Equilibrium potential elaborated

A

Potential at which there is no net flux of a particular ion into or out of the cell

RMP is closest to equilibrium potential of K+, so k+ conductance dominates

During AP, K+ overwhelmed by Na+, so Na+ dominates and membrane potential brought to Na+ equilibrium potential

137
Q

maintaining neutrality of internal and external environments

A
  • charges from Cl- cancel out charges from Na+ extracellularly
  • Charges from anions cancel out charges from K+ intracellularly
  • If K+ flows out, form as cations on outer edge, attracting the counteranions to membrane and keeping center of cell neutral
138
Q

why doesn’t messing w/ Cl- change RMP much

A
  • when intracellular leaves, lose same amount of K+

- since tons of K+ in cell, losing some doesn’t do much to cell

139
Q

Main points of resting membrane potential

A
  1. ) large changes in membrane potential can be due to minuscule concentration changes in ions
  2. ) RMP isn’t changed much by manipulating Cl-
  3. ) Differences in charge is at the membrane itself
  4. ) membrane capacitance- takes time for charge to build up
140
Q

Messing with extracellular Na+

A

-doesn’t make changes like K+ would b/c membrane isn’t permeable to Na+ like it is K+

141
Q

Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz

A
  • take natural log of permeability of concentration out over concentration in gives RMP
  • tells RMP for a given CELL
142
Q

saltatory conduction

A
  • propagation of AP along myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next
  • increases velocity of AP w/o having to increase diameter

Neurobiology (4 decks)

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