Unit 0 Flashcards
Random sampling
A sample that fairly represents a population because every member in the sample had an equal chance of being chosen to be in the sample
Central tendency
a statistic that identifies a single value as representative of the entire distribution of data. The three measures of central tendency in psychology are the mean, the median, and the mode of a sample, where the sample should be representative of the population. Measures of central tendency help you find the middle, or average, of a data set.
Confirmation Bias
People look for evidence that confirms their beliefs and ignore evidence that goes against their beliefs
Replication
Repeating a research study with different participants in different circumstances to see whether the findings remain consistent
Dependent Variable
The OUTCOME factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the ind. variable; RESULTS of experimental testing
Positively Skewed Distribution
Where do the mode, median, and mean go?
The skew shifts left in graph
Mode is at the top of the peak, median is in the middle of the graph, and mean is towards the botom of the graph
Psychiatry
Only people who can prescribe a drug, They deal with the most intense psychological disorders, they are a medical doctor who also provides therapy.
Mean
The average
Control Group
Those who don’t receive the treatment; used as a baseline datapoint for comparison (placebo group or norm group)
Third Variable Problem
When the data in a scatterplot shows us a correlation but there is a variable that is missed or not considered
We should not jump to conclusions when creating links between variables
Null Hypothesis
States that two variables are not related and that one does not affect the other
Positive Psychology
branch of psychology focused on the character strengths and behaviors that allow individuals to build a life of meaning and purpose—to move beyond surviving to flourishing. Theorists and researchers in the field have sought to identify the elements of a “good life”
Falsifiability in Research
Something that is falsifiable can be disproven.
IT IS ABLE TO BE DISPROVEN BUT THAT DOESN’T MEAN THAT IT LITERALLY CAN BE.
If a theory is falsifiable then it is scientific, if not then it is unscientific.
Experimental Group
People who receive the treatment(are being experimented on) ; variable being tested
Operational Definition
Clearly defines the experimental variables and procedures in very specific terms as to how it will be measured, manipulated, or changed.
Double-Blind Study
Research subjects and researchers themselves are “blind” to the experimental and control group
They find out at the end
Social Desirability Bias
A type of response bias that occurs when people act or respond in a way they believe will be viewed favorably by others even if it does not reflect their true feelings or thoughts
You have to create a comfortable environment so people are more honest.
Overconfidence Bias
A bias that occurs when people overestimate their abilities, knowledge, or skills in a particular area.
Regression Toward the Mean
The phenomenon where if one sample of a random variable is extreme , the next sampling of the same random variable is likely to be closer to its mean (or average).
In general it explains why unusual events are likely to be followed by more typical ones.
Median
The exact middle number when you put all the options in order
Developmental Psychology
Branch of psych that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout life
Lab Experiment
an experiment that uses a carefully controlled setting and standardised procedure to establish how changes in the independent variable affect the dependent variable
Debriefing
The post-experimental explanation of a study to participants, including its purpose and any deceptions used
Representative Sample
A group that closely matches the characteristics of its population as a whole. In other words, the sample is a fairly accurate reflection of the population from which the sample is drawn.
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated or changed; the variable whose effect is being studied
Bimodal Distribution
A set of scores with two distinct peaks where values tend to cluster, the frequencies at first increase and then decrease around each peak
Types of study that are paired with quantitative research
Surveys and lab experiment
Functionality
Ability to take care of yourself and hygiene, etc.
Random Assignment
Randomly placing people in experimental or control groups to minimize differences in the population groups
ex: turning people into a number to place them in groups randomly to limit human bias
How does random assignment differ from random sampling in the experimentation process?
Random sampling comes first and you make sure that the population is fairly represented. Then, random assignment is when you place those participants in experimental or control groups randomly.
Meta-analysis
A procedure that makes things more efficient. It statistically combines the results of many different research studies addressing questions around the same research topic
Basically creating a big summary of all the data on one topic
Correlation
Relationship between data points that is meant to see how A influences B
WHEN DESCRIBING THESE, USE CORRELATIONAL LANGUAGE DO NOT USE THE WORD CAUSE.
Clinical Psychology
Studying, assessing, and treating people or small groups with psychological disorders, stress issues and life difficulty. Often longer term therapy than counselors provide and dealing with more severe mental health issues than counselors
Biological Approach
Key words: genes, brain, hormones, neurons
Emphasis: genetics and biological processes, a focus on body and brain
Informed Consent
Ethical principle that research participants have to be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Parent / guardian must give permission if under 18yrs old- Informed assent
Beneficence
(minimize harm or do no harm)
an ethical principle that guides researchers and practitioners to prioritize the well-being of individuals involved in studies or receiving treatments. It is an obligation to act in ways that promote the welfare of others, and emphasizes the responsibility to treat people with compassion and minimize harm as much as possible.
Does correlation prove causation?
NO
Social Psychology
Study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another
Psychodynamic/ Psychoanalytic
Emphasis: Unconscious dynamics, motives, conflicts, and past experiences(especially trauma and parental conflicts)
Key Words: Unconscious, unresolved conflicts, defense mechanisms, repression, ego, nature vs nurture
Empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and science should rely on observation and experimentation
Behaviorism
Emphasis: Objective, observable environmental influences on behavior, repetition
Key Words: reward, learning, conditioning, reinforcement, punishment
Wilhelm Wundt
He recognized and established the ground rules for the field of psychology that is now based on research and experimentation and he created the first psychology laboratory.
Sport Psychology
Study of performance optimization for athletes, musicians, actors, police and military officers, etc.
Single-Blind Study
When the subjects/patients do not know all of the information about the study while it is occuring, especially whether they belong to the experimental or control group. Researchers are aware of these things.
Qualitative Research
More based on opinions, descriptive
Some experiences cannot be reduced to numerical values or simple categories(ex: emotions, personality)
Validity
Result of peer review and replication
When a test or experiment predicts what it is supposed to
Cognitive Psychology
Study of mental processes such as attention, language, memory, problem solving, creativity and thinking. Also mental processes used in thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating.
Normally Skewed Distribution
Where do the mode, median, and mean go?
Symmetrical, bell shaped curve
Mean, median and mode all at the peak
Placebo Effect
A simulated/ medically ineffectual treatment for a disease intended to deceive the receipent
Key words: Expectations and Beliefs
Humanism
Emphasis: Free will, self-actualization(living life to full potential), human nature is positive and growth seeking
Key words: Choice, positive growth, unconditional positive regard, unmet needs
Levels of Maslow’s Hieararchy of Needs(starting from base of pyramid)
1) Physiological- warmth, rest
2) Safety
3) Love/Belonging- friendship and family
4) Esteem- respect of others
5) Self-Actualization- living to one’s full potential
Counseling Psychology
Assists people with problems in living and in acheiving greater well-being, often related to school, work-life balance, stress issues or marriage
Hindsight Bias
A type of confirmation bias; The tendency to believe, AFTER watching or learning an outcome that you knew the outcome all along
Skewed Distribution
Shows that data is not consistent and lacks any symmetry around the average value
Positive Correlation
two like quantity statements (“more-more” and “less-less”)
Line is slanted up
Ex: The more I study, the higher my test grade is
Confounding Variable
A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
This could include the temperature of the room, color of paint on walls, time of day/year…
Generalizability
results of your study can be applied to different types of people
Standard Deviation in Research
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean. It’s a measure of variability in a set of scores or values, and how far they deviate from the mean
A small SD indicates that data points are close to the mean, while a large SD indicates that they are spread out across many different values. A SMALL SD IS BETTER BECAUSE IT MEANS YOUR DATA IS CONSISTENT.
Correlation Coefficient(r)
Statistical measure of a relationship on a scale of -1 to 1. They reveal how well thing predicts the other
If the r value is between -.5 and .5 then it is a weak correlation. If it is really close to 0 then it is a negligible correlation. If it is between -.5 and -1 and .5 and 1 then it is a strong correlation.
Socio-cultural approach
Key words: society, culture norms, social interaction, gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic
Emphasis: Social interaction and the cultural influence on behavior and mental processes
Sampling bias
A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample of a population
ex: the research is about minorities and the sample is mainly white people
What would a small SD look like? A large SD?
Small: Like a peak because they are clustered together
Large: Like a hill because they are spread out
Psychological Approach
Learned fears and other learned expectations
Emotional responses
Mental processes and perceptual interpretations
Directionality Problem
A limitation of correlational research in psychology that occurs when it’s unclear which variable causes changes in another. This can make it difficult to establish casual relationships.
For example, if there’s a correlation between stress levels and sleep quality, it’s not clear if high stress levels cause poor sleep quality, or if poor sleep quality causes increased stress levels.
Order of General Research Process
1) Write an Operational Definition for the Dependent Variable and meta-analysis
2) Propose Experiment to IRB for Review for ethics check
3) Random Sample from Population for Generalizability
4) Randomly assign groups
5) Run study and analyze data
6) Then, peer review of your data
7) then replication of study done by someone else and validity
8) then publish
What does it mean if your p-value > .05? If it is < .05?
If your p-value is > .05 then your data is likely to be random, but if it is < .05 then your data is unlikely random
Descriptive Statistics
Used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measure of central tendency and measures of variability .
Quantitative Research
Measurable and comparable and more fact based
Numerical values(ex: rate your strees on a scale from 1-10)
Experimenter Bias
The unintentional influence of the experimenter’s expectations or preconceived notions on the outcome of a study.
Ex: someone is researching something and they think they already know the answer so the questions that they ask their participants are biased or asked poorly.
Case Study
Studying one or a few individuals in great depth
Educational Psychology
Study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
What’s the difference between a large effect size and a small one? Provide an example to illustrate your point.
Effect size is a quantitative measure of the magnitude of the experimental effect. The larger the effect size, the stronger the relationship between two variables.
A large effect size means that a research finding has practical significance, while a small effect size indicates limited practical applications. You can look at the effect size when comparing any two groups to see how substantially different they are.
For example, we might want to know the effect of therapy on treating depression. The effect size value will show whether the therapy has had a small, medium, or large effect on depression.
DSM-5
Diagnostic classification manual employed by the APA to formally diagnose mental illness with symptoms for each mental illness
Psychometrics
Field in psychology that focuses on quantification and measurement of mental attributes, behavior, etc.
Ex: SATs, AP tests
Naturalistic Observation
Watching and recording behavior of organisms in their natural environment
Survey
Asking many people to report their behavior or opinions in less depth
Convenience Sample
Any process for selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is neither random nor systematic but rather is governed by chance or ready availability.
Convenience sampling involves using respondents who are “convenient” to the researcher. There is no pattern whatsoever in acquiring these respondents—they may be recruited merely asking
people who are present in the street, in a public building, or in a workplace, for example.
Inferential Statistics
Allows one to generalize – to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
For example, based on the data collected from 10 psych students that say they love writing, you infer that all/most psych students love writing.
Confounding variable vs third variable problem
Confounding variable is with experiments.
Third variable is with correlations.
Negative Correlation
two unlike quantity statements (“more-less”)
Line is slanted downward “negative slope”
Ex: The more I study, the less nervous I am about the test
Personality Psychology
Study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting
Self-Report Bias
A measurement error that arises when researchers rely on asking people to describe their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors rather than measuring these directly and objectively in a more experimental way
This is typically a problem because people are not self aware or they don’t want to get canceled.
Types of study that is “paired” with qualitative research
Case studies, naturalistic observation, and interviews
Confidentiality
An ethical principle that requires experimenters to protect the privacy and personal information of research participants (name, address, face, email, medical information)
P-value(probability value)
A number that describes how likely it is that your data occurred by random chance. The level of statistical significance is expressed as a p-value between 0 to 1. If it is closer to 0 then it is def not random, closer to 1 is def random.
Mode
The most frequently occuring number
Negative Skewed Distribution
Where do the mode, median, and mean go?
The skew shifts right in graph
Mode is at the top of the peak, median is in the middle of the graph, and mean is towards the botom of the graph
Who “created” psychodynamic/ psychoanalytic approach?
Sigmund Freud
What is required for a psychological experiment?
Precise operational definitions
Natural selection
organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring
