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AP Psych > Unit 0 > Flashcards

Unit 0 Flashcards

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1
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

A type of confirmation bias. “I knew it all along.” The tendency to believe, AFTER watching or learning an outcome that you knew the outcome all along. Seems obvious but really based on your observation

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2
Q

Overconfidence Bias

A

A bias that occurs when people overestimate their abilities, knowledge, or skills in a particular area.

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3
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

Goes along with hindsight bias. People look for evidence that confirms their beliefs and ignore evidence that goes against their beliefs. Only based on what you want to hear

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4
Q

Experimenter Bias

A

The unintentional influence of the experimenter’s expectations or preconceived notions on the outcome of a study.

Ex: someone is researching something and they think they already know the answer so the questions that they ask their participants are biased or asked poorly.

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5
Q

Random Assignment

A

Randomly placing people in experimental or control groups to minimize differences in the population groups

ex: turning people into a number to place them in groups randomly to limit human bias

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6
Q

Random sampling

A

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

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7
Q

Generalizability

A

results of your study can be applied to different types of people

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8
Q

How does random assignment differ from random sampling in the experimentation process?

A

Random sampling comes first and you make sure that the population is fairly represented. Then, random assignment is when you place those participants in experimental or control groups randomly.

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9
Q

Sampling bias

A

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample of a population

ex: the research is about minorities and the sample is mainly white people

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10
Q

Qualitative Research

A

More based on opinions, descriptive
Some experiences cannot be reduced to numerical values or simple categories(ex: emotions, personality)

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11
Q

Types of study that is “paired” with qualitative research

A

Case studies, naturalistic observation, and interviews

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12
Q

Quantitative Research

A

Measurable and comparable and more fact based
Numerical values(ex: rate your strees on a scale from 1-10)

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13
Q

Types of study that are paired with quantitative research

A

Surveys and lab experiment

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14
Q

Psychometrics

A

Field in psychology that focuses on quantification and measurement of mental attributes, behavior, etc.
Ex: SATs, AP tests

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15
Q

Case Study

A

Studying one or a few individuals in great depth

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16
Q

Survey

A

Asking many people to report their behavior or opinions in less depth

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17
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Watching and recording behavior of organisms in their natural environment

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18
Q

Lab Experiment

A

an experiment that uses a carefully controlled setting and standardised procedure to establish how changes in the independent variable affect the dependent variable

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19
Q

Single-Blind Study

A

When the subjects/patients do not know all of the information about the study while it is occuring, especially whether they belong to the experimental or control group. Researchers are aware of these things.

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20
Q

Double-Blind Study

A

Research subjects and researchers themselves are “blind” to the experimental and control group
They find out at the end

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21
Q

Biological Approach

A

Key words: genes, brain, hormones, neurons
Emphasis: genetics and biological processes, a focus on body and brain

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22
Q

Psychological Approach

A

Learned fears and other learned expectations
Emotional responses
Mental processes and perceptual interpretations

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23
Q

Socio-cultural approach

A

Key words: society, culture norms, social interaction, gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic
Emphasis: Social interaction and the cultural influence on behavior and mental processes

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24
Q

Placebo Effect

A

A simulated/ medically ineffectual treatment for a disease intended to deceive the receipent
Key words: Expectations and Beliefs

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25
Q

Clinical Psychology

A

Studying, assessing, and treating people or small groups with psychological disorders, stress issues and life difficulty. Often longer term therapy than counselors provide and dealing with more severe mental health issues than counselors

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26
Q

Counseling Psychology

A

Assists people with problems in living and in acheiving greater well-being, often related to school, work-life balance, stress issues or marriage

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27
Q

Psychiatry

A

Only people who can prescribe a drug, They deal with the most intense psychological disorders, they are a medical doctor who also provides therapy.

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28
Q

Third Variable Problem

A

When the data in a scatterplot shows us a correlation but there is a variable that is missed or not considered

We should not jump to conclusions when creating links between variables

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29
Q

Does correlation prove causation?

A

NO

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30
Q

Correlation

A

Relationship between data points that is meant to see how A influences B
WHEN DESCRIBING THESE USE CORRELATIONAL LANGUAGE DO NOT USE THE WORD CAUSE

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31
Q

Behaviorism

A

Emphasis: Objective, observable environmental influences on behavior, repetition
Key Words: reward, learning, conditioning, reinforcement, punishment

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32
Q

Psychodynamic

A

Emphasis: Unconscious dynamics, motives, conflicts, and past experiences(especially trauma and parental conflicts)
Key Words: Unconscious, unresolved conflicts, defense mechanisms, repression, ego, nature vs nurture

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33
Q

Humanism

A

Emphasis: Free will, self-actualization(living life to full potential), human nature is positive and growth seeking
Key words: Choice, positive growth, unconditional positive regard, unmet needs

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34
Q

DSM-5

A

Diagnostic classification manual employed by the APA to formally diagnose mental illness with symptoms for each mental illness

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35
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

He recognized and established the ground rules for the field of psychology that is now based on research and experimentation and he created the first psychology laboratory.

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36
Q

Levels of Maslow’s Hieararchy of Needs(starting from base of pyramid)

A

1) Physiological- warmth, rest
2) Safety
3) Love/Belonging- friendship and family
4) Esteem- respect of others
5) Self-Actualization- living to one’s full potential

37
Q

Null Hypothesis

A

States that two variables are not related and that one does not affect the other

38
Q

P-value(probability value)

A

A number that describes how likely it is that your data occurred by random chance. The level of statistical significance is expressed as a p-value between 0 to 1. If it is closer to 0 then it is def not random, closer to 1 is def random.

39
Q

What does it mean if your p-value > .05? If it is < .05?

A

If your p-value is > .05 then your data is likely to be random, but if it is < .05 then your data is unlikely random

40
Q

Skewed Distribution

A

Shows that data is not consistent and lacks any symmetry around the average value

41
Q

Positively Skewed Distribution
Where do the mode, median, and mean go?

A

The skew shifts left in graph
Mode is at the top of the peak, median is in the middle of the graph, and mean is towards the botom of the graph

42
Q

Negative Skewed Distribution
Where do the mode, median, and mean go?

A

The skew shifts right in graph
Mode is at the top of the peak, median is in the middle of the graph, and mean is towards the botom of the graph

43
Q

Normally Skewed Distribution
Where do the mode, median, and mean go?

A

Symmetrical, bell shaped curve
Mean, median and mode all at the peak

44
Q

Mean

A

The average

45
Q

Mode

A

The most frequently occuring number

46
Q

Median

A

The exact middle number

47
Q

Bimodal Distribution

A

A set of scores with two distinct peaks where values tend to cluster, the frequencies at first increase and then decrease around each peak

48
Q

Meta-analysis

A

A procedure that makes things more efficient. It statistically combines the results of many different research studies addressing questions around the same research topic

Basically creating a big summary of all the data on one topic

49
Q

Social Desirability Bias

A

A type of response bias that occurs when people act or respond in a way they believe will be viewed favorably by others even if it does not reflect their true feelings or thoughts

You have to create a comfortable environment so people are more honest.

50
Q

Self-Report Bias

A

A measurement error that arises when researchers rely on asking people to describe their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors rather than measuring these directly and objectively in a more experimental way

This is typically a problem because people are not self aware or they don’t want to get canceled.

51
Q

Falsifiability in Research

A

Something that is falsifiable can be disproven.
IT IS ABLE TO BE DISPROVEN BUT THAT DOESN’T MEAN THAT IT LITERALLY CAN BE.
If a theory is falsifiable then it is scientific, if not then it is unscientific.

52
Q

Directionality Problem

A

A limitation of correlational research in psychology that occurs when it’s unclear which variable causes changes in another. This can make it difficult to establish casual relationships.

For example, if there’s a correlation between stress levels and sleep quality, it’s not clear if high stress levels cause poor sleep quality, or if poor sleep quality causes increased stress levels.

52
Q

Representative Sample

A

A group that closely matches the characteristics of its population as a whole. In other words, the sample is a fairly accurate reflection of the population from which the sample is drawn.

53
Q

Convenience Sample

A

Any process for selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is neither random nor systematic but rather is governed by chance or ready availability.
Convenience sampling involves using respondents who are “convenient” to the researcher. There is no pattern whatsoever in acquiring these respondents—they may be recruited merely asking
people who are present in the street, in a public building, or in a workplace, for example.

54
Q

Standard Deviation in Research

A

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean. It’s a measure of variability in a set of scores or values, and how far they deviate from the mean
A small SD indicates that data points are close to the mean, while a large SD indicates that they are spread out across many different values. A SMALL SD IS BETTER BECAUSE IT MEANS YOUR DATA IS CONSISTENT.

55
Q

What would a small SD look like? A large SD?

A

Small: Like a peak because they are clustered together
Large: Like a hill because they are spread out

56
Q

Regression Toward the Mean

A

The phenomenon where if one sample of a random variable is extreme , the next sampling of the same random variable is likely to be closer to its mean (or average).
In general it explains why unusual events are likely to be followed by more typical ones.

57
Q

Descriptive Statistics

A

Used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measure of central tendency and measures of variability .

58
Q

Inferential Statistics

A

Allows one to generalize – to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
For example, based on the data collected from 10 psych students that say they love writing, you infer that all/most psych students love writing.

59
Q

Central tendency

A

a statistic that identifies a single value as representative of the entire distribution of data. The three measures of central tendency in psychology are the mean, the median, and the mode of a sample, where the sample should be representative of the population. Measures of central tendency help you find the middle, or average, of a data set.

60
Q

What’s the difference between a large effect size and a small one? Provide an example to illustrate your point.

A

Effect size is a quantitative measure of the magnitude of the experimental effect. The larger the effect size, the stronger the relationship between two variables.
A large effect size means that a research finding has practical significance, while a small effect size indicates limited practical applications. You can look at the effect size when comparing any two groups to see how substantially different they are.

For example, we might want to know the effect of therapy on treating depression. The effect size value will show whether the therapy has had a small, medium, or large effect on depression.

61
Q

Confounding Variable

A

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
This could include the temperature of the room, color of paint on walls, time of day/year…

62
Q

Confounding variable vs third variable problem

A

Confounding variable is with experiments.
Third variable is with correlations.

63
Q

Informed Consent

A

Ethical principle that research participants have to be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Parent / guardian must give permission if under 18yrs old- Informed assent

64
Q

Confidentiality

A

An ethical principle that requires experimenters to protect the privacy and personal information of research participants (name, address, face, email, medical information)

65
Q

Beneficence

A

(minimize harm or do no harm)
an ethical principle that guides researchers and practitioners to prioritize the well-being of individuals involved in studies or receiving treatments. It is an obligation to act in ways that promote the welfare of others, and emphasizes the responsibility to treat people with compassion and minimize harm as much as possible.

66
Q

Debriefing

A

The post-experimental explanation of a study to participants, including its purpose and any deceptions used

67
Q

Developmental Psychology

A

Branch of psych that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout life

68
Q

Educational Psychology

A

Study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

69
Q

Personality Psychology

A

Study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting

70
Q

Positive Psychology

A

branch of psychology focused on the character strengths and behaviors that allow individuals to build a life of meaning and purpose—to move beyond surviving to flourishing. Theorists and researchers in the field have sought to identify the elements of a “good life”

71
Q

Social Psychology

A

Study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another

72
Q

Sport Psychology

A

Study of performance optimization for athletes, musicians, actors, police and military officers, etc.

73
Q

Cognitive Psychology

A

Study of mental processes such as attention, language, memory, problem solving, creativity and thinking

74
Q
A
74
Q

Correlation Coefficient(r)

A

Statistical measure of a relationship on a scale of -1 to 1. They reveal how well thing predicts the other
If the r value is between -.5 and .5 then it is a weak correlation. If it is really close to 0 then it is a negligible correlation. If it is between -.5 and -1 and .5 and 1 then it is a strong correlation.

75
Q

Positive Correlation

A

two like quantity statements (“more-more” and “less-less”)
Line is slanted up
Ex: The more I study, the higher my test grade is

75
Q

Negative Correlation

A

two unlike quantity statements (“more-less”)
Line is slanted downward
Ex: The more I study, the less nervous I am about the test

76
Q

Experimental Group

A

People who receive the treatment(are being experimented on) ; variable being tested

77
Q

Control Group

A

Those who don’t receive the treatment; used as a baseline datapoint for comparison (placebo group or norm group)

78
Q

Independent Variable

A

The experimental factor that is manipulated or changed; the variable whose effect is being studied

79
Q

Dependent Variable

A

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the ind. variable; results of experimental testing

80
Q

Order of General Research Process

A

1) Write an Operational Definition for the Dependent Variable and meta-analysis
2) Propose Experiment to IRB for Review for ethics check
3) Random Sample from Population for Generalizability
4) Randomly assign groups
5) Run study and analyze data
6) Then, peer review of your data
7) then replication of study done by someone else and validity
8) then publish

81
Q

Operational Definition

A

Clearly defines the experimental variables and procedures in very specific terms as to how it will be measured, manipulated, or changed.

82
Q

Validity

A

Result of peer review and replication
When a test or experiment predicts what it is supposed to

83
Q

Replication

A

Repeating a research study with different participants in different circumstances to see whether the findings remain consistent

84
Q

Functionality

A

Ability to take care of yourself and hygiene, etc.

85
Q

Empiricism

A

the view that knowledge originates in experience and science should rely on observation and experimentation

AP Psych (4 decks)

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