UK Politics: European Union

Question 1

Countries part of the EU

Answer 1

The EU countries are: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Republic of Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Sweden.

Question 2

When did it begin to be formed?

Answer 2

-after WW2.
-focus was on economic ties, strong democracies, shared values within Western Europe.

Question 3

Aims of the European project

Answer 3

-economic recovery.
-prosperity.
-embedding democracy & human rights.
-peace & solidarity.

Question 4

What did Churchill say? 1946

Answer 4

“must build a kind of united states of Europe.”

Question 5

The Schuman Declaration 1950

Answer 5

-Schuman said that he wanted to create ‘de facto solidarity’.
-he wanted a constitutional and structural dynamic.
-the pooling of coal & steel production changes the destinies of regions devoted to the manufacture of war.

Question 6

What was the European Coal & Steel community? 1952

Answer 6

-beginning of the Eu.
-aimed to strengthen economy & create a common market.
-linked in Germany & France.
-later joined by Italy, France, Belgium & Luxemburg.
-some feared this would deepen divide of East & West.
-Atoee said Britain won’t join & he ‘would not accept the economy being handed over to an unaccountable authority that’s undemocratic.”

Question 7

Key events in the making of the EU

Answer 7

-Treaty of Rome 1958
-Single European act 1985
-Schengen agreement 1985
-Maastricht treaty 1992
-Eurozone 1999

Question 8

Treaty of Paris 1951-2

Answer 8

established European coal & steel community enabling a common market.
-established High Authority in order to supervise the market, monitor compliance with competition rules & ensure price transparency.

Membership was 6 countries; France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands & Luxemburg.

Question 9

Treaty of Rome 1957-8

Answer 9

Established the EEC & created a wider economic market.
-effectively laid foundations of an ‘even closer Union’ & greatly expanded the scope of the institution into areas of agriculture & a common tarifs policy.

Same membership as the ECSC.

Question 10

Enlargement Round 1 1973

Answer 10

First significant expansion in EEC membership.
-Denmark, Ireland & UK joined EEC & Spain & Portugal joined subsequently.

Question 11

Single European act passed 1985-7

Answer 11

A single European market was created. Qualified majority voting (QMV) rather than unanimity was adopted for votes on legislation to do with the single market.

Question 12

Schengen Agreement 1985

Answer 12

Removed internal border controls so effectively created a single travel area within the EEC/EU.

The UK & Ireland secured an opt-out from the agreement.

Question 13

Maastricht Treaty 1992

Answer 13

Created the EU & established a timetable for economic & monetary Union & increased cooperation between member states in foreign & security policy.

Question 14

Eurozone created 1999

Answer 14

11 countries abolished their national currencies & adopted the euro.
Marked another significant stage in economic integration.
Meant monetary policy for those states such as setting interest rates was in hands of European Central Bank, not national govt.

4 countries didn’t join this (UK included). Since 1999, 8 more countries adopted the Euro.

Question 15

The European Union

Answer 15

-consists of 27 member states.
-different EU institutions responsible for executive, legislative & judicial.
-EU’s aims include peace, removing internal borders & achieving freedom & economic growth while promoting different cultures & languages.
-Britain voted to leave the EU in 2016 and left in 2020.
-the EU played a significant role in UK politics before & since the referendum.

Question 16

European commission (Brussels): Membership

Answer 16

-27 commissioners who allocate responsibilities for policy areas.
-the commission president (Ursula von der leyen) nominated by European council but must be approved by the European parliament.
-individual commissioners nominated by national govts & voted on by the European parliament.

Question 17

European commission: Significance

Answer 17

-27 commissioners, one from each EU country.
-commissioners not directly elected: national govts nominate commissioners & the European Council nominated the president of the commission.
-nominees confirmed by the European parliament.

Question 18

European commission: Function

Answer 18

-both the civil service & administrative branch of the EU & devises policy.
-proposes new laws.
-manages EU policies & allocates EU funding.
-enforces EU law & ensured member states comply.
-represents the EU internationally including in the negotiation of agreements.

Question 19

European commission: Examples of its work

Answer 19

-June 2020, commission announced a 9% reduction in funding for the Common Agricultural policy.
-1982, commission issued the Seveso Directive dealing with the storage of dangerous substances in the oil & chemical industries to minimise the risk of major incidents.
-affects over 12,000 industrial establishments across the EU.

Question 20

Council of the European Union (Brussels): Membership

Answer 20

-govt ministers from each EU country, according to policy area to be discussed.
-membership is effectively decided by national govts.

Question 21

Council of the European Union: Function

Answer 21

-main EU decision-making body, previously known as the Council of Ministers.
-no fixed members.
-compromises 10 sectional councils dealing with a specific policy area (Agriculture/Fisheries).
-shared legislative powers with European parliament & coordinated economic policy across the states.
-negotiates and approved laws proposed by commission.
-most decisions agreed using QMV, but in a few areas such as foreign policy & taxation, unanimity is required.

Question 22

Council of the European Union: Significance

Answer 22

Intergovernmental body:
-govt ministers from each of the member nations attend & make decisions together.
-10 diff types of meetings attended by the appropriate ministers (finance ministers at the meeting on economic & financial affairs).

Question 23

Council of the European Union: Example of its work

Answer 23

-negotiated trade deals with non-EU states such as that in 2019 with Japan.

Question 24

European Council (Brussels except in April,June,Oct in Luxemburg): Membership

Answer 24

-quarterly summit meetings of leaders of all member states.
-council chooses a president to serve a 5 year term.
-E.g. 2019, Michel replaced Tusk.
-meetings attended by president who does not have a vote.

Question 25

European Council: Function

Answer 25

-‘agenda setting’ & defining EU’s overall direction & priorities.
-not one of the EU’s legislating institutions so does not negotiate or adopt EU laws.
-key strategic body of EU.

Question 26

European Council: Significance

Answer 26

Intergovernmental body
-heads of govt for all EU nations meet 4 times a year.

Question 27

European Council: Examples of its work

Answer 27

-oversaw Brexit negotiations with the UK, laying down the EU’s terms.
-formulated an EU response to unrest in Ukraine & the threat posed by Russia.
-a 2019 tweet by former president of the European Council, Tusk said “There can be no Europe without an independent Ukraine.”

Question 28

European Parliament (Strasbourg, some in Luxemburg): Membership

Answer 28

-post-Brexit, contains 705 members (MEPs) directly elected by member states.
-number of MEPs per country is determined by size, Germany has 96 MEPs, while Malta has 6.
-MEPs sit in pan-European political groupings, such as the Group of Progressive Alliance of Socialists & Democrats

Question 29

European parliament: Function

Answer 29

-It approves the annual EU budget.
-It amends and vetoes EU legislation as proposed by the Council of the European Union and drafted by the Commission.
-it cannot propose its own legislation.
-It confirms the appointment of commissioners nominated by national governments.
-It oversees the work of EU institutions, notably the European Commission.

Question 30

European Parliament: Significance

Answer 30

-The EU’s only directly elected body.
-705 Members of the European Parliament (MEPS).
-Each EU nation is allocated a number of seats in the European Parliament that reflects its size, e.g. Germany has 96 and Cyprus has 6.

Question 31

Qualified majority voting (QMV)

Answer 31

-Voting system used by EU on deciding policies.
-Requires 55% of member states to vote in favour (15/27).
-Proposal must be supported by member states representing at least 65% of the total EU population.
-Weakens power of individual nations.

Question 32

Key themes & aims of the EU

Answer 32

-Freedom of movement of people
-Freedom of movement of services
-Freedom of movement of capital
-Freedom of movement of goods

Wider aims;
-Peace and stability
-Promotion of economic growth across member states
-Promotion of individual rights and freedoms
-Intergration into an ‘ever closer Union’

Question 33

Peace and stability

Answer 33

-The EU has successfully promoted peace and stability, especially in post-Cold War Eastern Europe.
-Investments in infrastructure and support for fledgling democracies reduced instability after the fall of the USSR and Iron Curtain.
-EU membership helped integrate war-torn regions like former Yugoslavia, with countries like Slovenia and Croatia becoming members.

Question 34

Promotion of economic growth across member states

Answer 34

-Economically weaker nations like Ireland and Eastern European countries experienced growth through the EU single market and grants.
-GDP increased by 15% since the EU’s inception, with millions of jobs created.
-Economic disparity persists: in 2019, Germany’s GDP per capita was five times higher than Bulgaria’s.
-Wealth inequality within the EU has grown, and domestic governments retain much control over economic policies.
-Bailouts for nations like Greece and Italy after the 2007–08 financial crisis came with austerity measures, deepening debt issues.

Question 35

Individual rights & freedoms

Answer 35

-Freedom of movement allows EU citizens to seek better jobs and travel freely, though it raised concerns over immigration (e.g., Brexit tensions).
-Workers’ rights are protected (e.g., Working Time Directive), healthcare is reciprocal, and study grants like Erasmus enhance opportunities.
-The refugee crisis from Syria highlighted uneven asylum burdens among member states (e.g., Germany vs. Hungary).
-Critics argue the EU failed to manage migration effectively, exposing weaknesses in its asylum policy framework.

Question 36

Integration into an ‘ever closer Union’

Answer 36

-The EU achieved significant integration through the eurozone, single customs union, and unified standards (e.g., banning chlorinated chicken).
-Symbols of unity include the EU flag, anthem, and citizenship.
-Populism and Euroscepticism have grown, with richer nations resisting debt-sharing with poorer countries.
-Challenges like COVID-19 tested the EU’s ability to coordinate effectively.

Question 37

The EU and its response to Covid-19

Answer 37

Initial Challenges:
-Lack of coordinated response in 2020 damaged the EU’s image of unity.
-Temporary internal border controls and varied lockdown measures were imposed.
-Disputes arose over the sale and export of personal protective equipment (PPE).
-Hard-hit nations, like Italy, criticized less-affected countries for withholding aid and supplies.
Economic Interventions:
-The European Central Bank (ECB) intervened with unprecedented measures.
-In April 2020, EU finance ministers approved a €500 billion rescue package.
-The European Commission proposed a €750 billion recovery plan to address the crisis.
Outcome:
-The crisis highlighted the interdependence of EU member states.
Efforts ultimately strengthened economic and financial ties among members.

Question 38

Has the EU achieved its aims? Yes

Answer 38

-EU has provided coordinated large-scale support at times of financial crisis (ie. during Covid & 2008-9 financial crisis).
-Coordination in areas such as policing & security to make Europe safer (ie. the European arrest warrant).
-Europe is closer and more united in a whole range of areas (ie. Eurozone creation & expansion of EU competences).

Question 39

Has the EU achieved its aims? No

Answer 39

-Security has been enhanced through separate agreements independent of the EU (ie. Interpol is an international body that is separate from the EU).
-The EU reflects differentiated intergration. Some countries are more inter grated than others (ie. Denmark remains outside the eurozone). Many have secured opt-outs from policies they see as detrimental to national interests.
-Some member states, have been accused of adopting un-democratic policies such as restricting press freedoms & politicising their courts.

Question 40

Court of Justice of the EU (Luxemburg): Membership size & method of appointment

Answer 40

-The CJEU is divided into 2 courts:
-> Court of justice - deals with requests for preliminary rulings from national courts.
-> General court - rules on actions for annulment brought by individuals, companies & EU govts. Means the court deals with mainly competition law, state aid, agriculture & trademarks.
-Each judge is appointed for a renewable 6 year term by national governments and the judges select a president who serves a renewable term of 3 years.

Question 41

Court of Justice of the EU: Function

Answer 41

-To uphold EU laws, they’re implemented uniformly across member states & many cases are brought to the court by the Commission where it believes laws are being infringed.
-It’s the ultimate source of legal authority, & decisions cannot be overruled by another EU body or national govts.

Question 42

Court of Justice of the EU: Examples of its work

Answer 42

-Much of its work concerns matters of trade & copyright.
-Doesn’t always back the European Coomkission.
-E.g. in 2020, its General court overturned the Commission’s decision to block the merger of 2 UK mobile telecoms companies, O2 & Three.

Question 43

The impact of the EU on UK politics & policy-making

Answer 43

-Constitution, sovereignty & referendums
-Government & parliament
-Judiciary
-Political parties
-Voting behaviour

Question 44

Constitution, sovereignty & referendums

Answer 44

Parliamentary Sovereignty and EU Membership:
-While in the EU, UK parliamentary Acts could not conflict with EU law.
-EU legislation took precedence, limiting UK autonomy in areas like farming and fishing quotas.
-Campaigns like repealing the ‘tampon tax’ (VAT on sanitary products) were restricted by EU rules.
-Parliamentary sovereignty was restored after Brexit by repealing the European Communities Act 1972.

Referendums and Sovereignty:
-Referendums in 1975 and 2016 highlighted tensions between popular and parliamentary sovereignty.
-In 1975, the public’s decision to remain in the EEC aligned with parliamentary will.
-The 2016 Brexit referendum revealed a divide: a Remain majority in Parliament versus a slim Leave majority in the population.
-Debate persists over whether referendums reflect the pure will of the people or expose their limitations in representative democracy.

Question 45

Government & parliament

Answer 45

Impact of EU Membership on UK Policy-Making:
-All UK legislation had to align with EU law.
-EU rules made it harder for the UK government to bail out struggling industries without EU approval, ensuring competition rules were followed.
-Membership fostered stronger political partnerships between the UK and EU countries.
-Joining the eurozone or Schengen Agreement would have further limited UK policy-making, e.g., the Bank of England losing control over interest rates.
Brexit and Parliamentary Procedure:
-Brexit (2017–2020) caused significant parliamentary gridlock.
-In 2019, Parliament briefly seized control of the timetable from the government.
Policy Areas Outside EU Competence:
-The EU had limited influence on areas like health and education, where national governments retained full control over policy.

Question 46

Judiciary

Answer 46

-UK judges were required to prioritize EU law in their rulings.
-The 1990 Factortame case highlighted this precedence, with the Law Lords ruling that the Merchant Shipping Act 1988 was illegal under EU law.
-UK courts applied EU rulings, including those of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), in domestic cases.
-Lord Pannick described Factortame as the most significant UK court decision on EU law, demonstrating the supremacy of EU law over UK Acts of Parliament.

Question 47

Political parties

Answer 47

Division Within Main Political Parties:
-In the 1970s, Labour was deeply divided over EU membership.
-From the 1980s onwards, the Conservative Party experienced sharp divisions, with Eurosceptics (e.g., John Redwood) opposing pro-Europeans (e.g., Ken Clarke).
-In September 2019, 21 Tory MPs had the whip withdrawn after voting to block a no-deal Brexit.
-The December 2019 Conservative election victory resolved much of the internal division.
Unity Among Other Parties:
-The EU was a unifying issue for Welsh and Scottish nationalist parties.
-The Liberal Democrats adopted a strong pro-EU stance, pledging to revoke Article 50 in their 2019 manifesto.

Question 48

Voting behaviour

Answer 48

Age and Voting Behaviour:
-Age differences in voting are not linked to the age of leadership (e.g., Jeremy Corbyn was older than Boris Johnson in 2019).
Brexit Focus:
-Younger voters, predominantly Remain, often have a more globalist outlook.
-Older voters prioritized national sovereignty, aligning with Leave.
Policy Priorities:
-Older voters, being more socially conservative, focused on issues like immigration, where the Conservatives were seen as tougher.
-Younger voters emphasized climate change, where Labour had stronger appeal.
Economic Factors:
-Younger voters, facing less job security and higher housing costs, are often poorer and less likely to own homes.
-Labour traditionally appeals to low-income voters, while the Conservatives resonate with homeowners and wealthier groups.