(U3) AOS 2: How do people learn and remember Flashcards
Neural plasticity
ability of neural structure or function to be changed by experience
Synaptic plasticity
ability of a synapses to change over time through use or disuse
Long Term Potentiation (LTP)
long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections through activity at the synapse, resulting in enhance or more effective synaptic transmission
Long Term Depression (LTD
long lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic connections and transmission, and unused neural pathways may eventually disappear
Neurotransmitter (4)
- released by pre-synaptic neuron into the synapse
- only affects neurons linked via synapse
- short distance
- quick effect
Neurohormone (4)
- released by pre-synaptic neuron into the bloodstream
- carry messages throughout the body
- longer distance
- quick effect not as quick effect
Role of Glutamate
- main excitatory neurotransmitter, makes postsynaptic neurons more likely to fire
- promotes growth and strengthening of synaptic connection which lead to LTP
Consolidation
process of making new formed long-term memories stable and enduring after learning, taking approximately 30 minutes
Reconsolidation
when memories are ‘resaved’ after each retrieval, memories can be changed or revised over time.
Role of adrenaline in memory
enhances consolidation of emotionally arousing long-term memories
How does adrenaline enhance memory
during arousal adrenaline and noradrenaline are released which activates the amygdala, which then signals the hippocampus
Learning
any relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience
Classical Conditioning
type of learning that occurs through repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS
naturally causes response
Unconditioned response (UCR)
naturally occurring response to a stimulus
Neutral stimulus (NS)
naturally causes no response
Conditioned response (CR)
previously the UCR, now occurs in response to the CS
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
neutral stimulus after being paired with unconditioned stimulus
Stimulus generalisation (CC)
ability to tell the difference between stimulus that are similar
Stimulus discrimination (CC)
stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus that also cause a response
Extinction (CC)
when the conditioned stimuli no longer cause the conditioned response, goes back to a NS
Spontaneous Recovery (CC)
when the conditioned stimuli no longer cause the conditioned response, goes back to a NS
Thorndike law of effect
actions followed by favourable consequences are more likely to be repasted than actions followed by unfavourable consequences
Operant conditioning
type of learning for which consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again
Reinforcer
a consequence that increase the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
Positive Reinforcer
something good is added to increase behaviour
Negative Reinforcer
avoidance or removal or something unpleasant to increase behaviour
Punishment
consequence that weakens or reduces the likelihood of a response repeating
Positive Punishment
something unpleasant is added
Negative Punishment
something good is lost
Reinforcement is better than punishment because… (2)
punishing can become more of a reward due to attention received and can become abuse
Stimulus generalisation (OC)
when the same response is made to a similar antecedent that was
Stimulus discrimination (OC)
only makes the response to the original antecedent, nothing else
Extinction (OC)
gradual decrease in the strength of a conditioned response following a lack of consequences. A learned response that is no longer punished or reinforced will stop.
Spontaneous Recovery (OC)
occurs after extinction, when the conditioned behaviour shows in the absence of the antecedent that produced behaviour
Observation learning
a person learns by watching a behaviour demonstrated by another
Modelling
an observer demonstrated behaviour observed
Attention
cognitive aspect, individuals need to pay attention in order to observe the modelled behaviour
Retention
behaviour must be stored in memory as a mental representation to be retrieved and copied
Reproduction
learner must have physical and intellectual ability to convert mental representations into actions
Motivation
learner must want to imitate the behaviour
Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment concludes that…
people learn from not only being rewarded or punished but watching an individual being rewarded or punished
‘Little Albert’ experiment (CC)
UCS – loud noise UCR – fear/crying NS – white rate CS – white rat CR – fear/crying
‘Little Albert’ experiment (ethical issues) (4)
- did not get consent from albert mother
- today, using experiments to evoke fear would not be allowed
- emotionally traumatising
- did not extinguish the conditioned response
Memory
the way in which the mind remembers and stores information
Sensory Memory Function (2)
- received sensory information from environment
- paying attention transfers information into STM
Sensory Memory Capacity
potentially unlimited
Sensory Memory Duration
- about 0.2 to 4 seconds
Short-term Memory
(STM) Function
maintains information in conscious awareness from immediate use
Short-term Memory
STM) Capacity (2
- 7 + or – 2 pieces of information
- can increase through chunking
Short-term Memory
(STM) Duration
- from 18 to 10 seconds
- longer if maintenance rehearsal is used
Long-term Memory (LTM)
Function
information storage for re-access and use at a later time
Long-term Memory (LTM) Capacity
potentially unlimited
Long-term Memory (LTM) Duration (2)
- potentially permanent
- some information can be lost or inaccessible over time
what is iconic memory
visual memory
Iconic memory duration
about 250 milliseconds
what is echoic memory
auditory memory
Echoic memory duration
about 3 to 4 seconds
What is procedural memory
how to do something
What is declarative memory
what something is
Two types of declarative memory
- episodic (autobiographical)
- semantic (information)
What is explicit memory
information you have to constantly work to remember
What is implicit memory
information you have unconsciously and effortlessly
Recall
retrieving information from LTM into STM (consciousness)
Free recall
retrieving information in any order
Serial recall
reproducing information in the order in which it was retrieved
Queued recall
used prompts or cues to aid retrieval
Recognition
identifying information as having been previously stored, matching information with that stored in LTM
Relearning
previously learned information is relearned more quickly, suggest some information has been retained in LTM
Reconstruction
combining stored information with other available information – tendency to complete gaps in memory (most common with episodic memories)
Alzheimer’s symptoms
forgetfulness, difficulty with time, language problems and inability to recognise people
Alzheimer’s causes
- beta – amyloid clusters stick together to form plaque
- protein strands or threads become in tangled forming neurofibrillary tangles
Amnesia
loss of memory, maybe partial or total, temporary, or permanent
Anterograde amnesia
inability to form or store new long-term memories
Retrieval Cue
any stimulus that assists in the retrieval of information stored in memory
Context-Dependent Cues
environmental cues present when a memory was formed
State-Dependent Cues
cues associated with physiological or psychological state when the memory was formed
Rehearsal (encoding)
act of getting information into our long-term memory through processing
The serial Position Effect is the….
tendency to recall more items from the beginning and end of a list
Maintenance Rehearsal is _____ which ______ however _____
repetition,
keeps info in STM for longer than 18–2 seconds,
rarely enough to transfer information into long-term memory
Elaborative Rehearsal links _____
new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in long-term memory
Eyewitness testimony
is any firsthand account given by individuals of an event they have seen
Leading question
is asked in such a way as to suggest what answer is desired
Fallibility of Memory concludes that ____
eyewitness testimony is not always accurate because eyewitness reconstruct their memories and their reconstructed memories can be manipulated by leading questions that contain misleading information
