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BGS Bio A21 > U1T2 - Immunity > Flashcards

U1T2 - Immunity Flashcards

Immunity

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1
Q

What are some of the non specific defences of the body?

A

Outer protective covering (skin), lysozymes (tears), Epithelial lining covered in mucus + cilia, HCl in stomach + phagocytosis.

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2
Q

How does the skin prevent infection?

A

Physical barrier. Most pathogens can’t penetrate it. Only ineffective when punctured.

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3
Q

How do lysozymes prevent infection?

A

Anti bacterial, can hydrolyse bacterial cell walls. Tears wash away debris from eye. e.g. sweat, tears + saliva.

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4
Q

How does an epithelial lining covered in mucus + cilia prevent infection?

A

Mucus traps pathogens so don’t penetrate underlying membranes. Cilia sweep mucus back up trachea. e.g. respiratory system

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5
Q

How does HCl in stomach prevent infection?

A

Kills most pathogens in food/liquids. Engulfs pathogen, lysozymes fuse with it + lysozymes hydrolyse them.

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6
Q

What are 2 of the main actions of the immune system?

A

B + T Lymphocytes + self + non-self antigens.

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7
Q

How do B + T Lymphocytes detect infection?

A

Non-self antigens on the surface of pathogens. Have specific receptors in cell membranes which are complementary to specific antigen.

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8
Q

When does determination of self + non-self antigens occur?

A

During development of the foetus in the uterus.

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9
Q

Why are proteins ideal for acting as antibodies?

A

Exist in near infinite number of structures (1 change in amino acid, entirely different shape)

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10
Q

What are the 3 main effects of antibodies?

A

Agglutination of pathogens, cell lysis + act as markers for phagocytic cells.

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11
Q

When are antigens produced on the surface of a cell?

A

(Non-Self) When pathogen infects cell. (Self) When presence of abnormal self antigens detected e.g. tumours develop.

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12
Q

What are the 4 types of T cell?

A

Memory T, Helper T, Suppressor T, Killer T.

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13
Q

What are the benefits of vaccines?

A

Less people contract serious illness, infant mortality rate lowered, cheaper than treating illness. Economy more productive as fewer people miss work due to illness.

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14
Q

What are primary and secondary immune responses as a result of?

A

Activation of B or T lymphocytes.

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15
Q

Why is the primary immune response so slow + why is this bad?

A

Matching B/T lymphocyte must first divide by mitosis (clones) to produce many plasma cells. Allows pathogen time to multiply + cause disease symptoms before destruction by antibodies.

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16
Q

What might you need if you’re on a vaccination program?

A

Booster injection to develop higher antibody concentrated, allowing longer term protection.

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17
Q

Why does transplant organ rejection occur?

A

Occurs as recipient’s immune system recognises donated organ as having foreign antigens. Cell mediated immune response activated as T cells sensitised by non self antigens. Clonal expansion follows + killer T cells attack + destroy donated tissue cells. Does not occur if transplant from own body or identical twin.

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18
Q

What are 3 ways organ rejection is reduced?

A

Tissue matching/typing, immunosuppressant drugs + x ray irradiation.

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19
Q

What are some of the issues with x rays and immunosuppressant drugs?

A

Recipient vulnerable to infection so must be monitored. Dependent on drugs for life of transplant. Careful balance between immunosuppression + organ rejection required. With immunodrugs, may support patient with antibac mouth rinses, antiviral drugs + monoclonal antibodies.

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20
Q

Where is a specialised example of the immune response seen?

A

Human blood groups.

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21
Q

What do blood groups depend on?

A

Antigens found on cell surface membranes of red blood cells. ABO system most well known.

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22
Q

Why is agglutination dangerous?

A

Blood vessels can become blocked + heart attacks/strokes may occur as O2 + glucose can’t be transported to tissues.

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23
Q

What are the 4 blood groups?

A

A, B, AB + O.

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24
Q

Why must blood groups be matching during donation + transfusion?

A

Carefully check each blood group. If red blood cells of donor blood attacked by those of recipient, blood cells will clump, which could block blood vessels + kill recipient. Donated blood recognised as non-self + so attacked. Donor antibodies too small + diluted by recipient so don’t attack recipient. Safe transfusions mean recipient mustn’t have antibodies to donated antigens.

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25
Q

Which blood group is the universal donor?

Which is the universal recipient?

A

Blood group O (no antigens on RBCs)

Blood group AB (no antibodies in plasma)

26
Q

What blood groups can each of these blood groups donate blood to?

  • A
  • B
  • AB
  • O
A
  • A + AB
  • B+ AB
  • AB
  • ALL
27
Q

What blood groups can each of these blood groups receive blood from?

  • A
  • B
  • AB
  • O
A
  • A + O
  • B + O
  • ALL
  • O
28
Q

What are the issues with the rhesus system during pregnancy?

A

If Rh- mother has Rh+ baby, blood could mix so mother becomes sensitised. If she has a second Rh+ baby, high risk of haemolytic disease of newborn.

29
Q

How is haemolytic disease prevented in Rh+ babies with Rh- mothers?

A

Rh- women whose partners are Rh+ get routine injection to prevent disease. Rh- mothers can get anti-D antibodies near end of pregnancy as preventative measure. If newborn is Rh+, further injection after birth.

30
Q

What is the mode of action of antibiotics?

A

Disrupt cell walls of prokaryotic cells by inhibiting enzymes involved in formation or interfering with protein synthesis.

31
Q

How is antibiotic resistant bacteria being fought?

A

Reduce prescription of antibiotics + deeper cleaning of hospitals + clinics.

32
Q

What are the 4 natural barriers to prevent pathogen entry?

A

Skin, lysozymes, epithelial lining covered in mucus + HCL.

33
Q

Give examples of antigen presenting cells.

A

Macrophages, virus infected cells + cancerous cells.

34
Q

What can affect the numbers of suppressor T cells?

A

Type 1 diabetes. May lead to cell mediated attack on insulin producing cells in pancreas.

35
Q

Can pathogens contain multiple types of antigen?

A

Yes, this means each antigen produces an immune response with diff type of b cell so multiple antigen-antibody reactions may take place at same time.

36
Q

What is a key point when working out transfusion compatibility?

A

Donated blood is mostly RBCs + plasma not much. Group A can donate to group AB because not many anti-b antibodies in group A will be transfused into group AB.

37
Q

Why do we have an ABO system?

A

Diff antigens/groups evolved due to mutations. None give group selective adaptation. May have in past.

38
Q

What is useful about erythromycin (antibiotic)?

A

Doesn’t affect larger ribosomes in eukaryotic cells so disrupts protein synthesis in bacteria + doesn’t damage ribosomes in patients taking it.

39
Q

How have pencillin resistant bacteria evolved to resist its effects?

A

Produce penicillinase to break it down, export its active ingredient out of cell before it can work + alternative metabolic pathways in cell wall formation render it inactive.

40
Q

Why did deaths from MRSA increase in 2008 and subsequently decrease?

A

Antibiotic resistance. More rigorous hygiene, more effective isolation of MRSA patients, less antibiotic use + new targeted drug treatments.

41
Q

What affects the rate at which disease spreads?

A

How easily its spread, how likely people are to fall ill once infected, whether there’s a vaccination + % uptake of vaccination. Also bacterial resistance to antibiotics.

42
Q

What cause most epidemics + pandemics?

A

Viruses because they have small genomes prone to mutation, many disease causing viruses are retroviruses with RNA in genome so less stable than with DNA + antibiotics don’t work against them.

43
Q

Give examples of diseases caused by viruses with RNA.

A

Influenza, rabies, SARS, Hendra, Ebola + AIDS.

44
Q

What were the causes of the spread of AIDS?

A

Advent of globalisation, casual sex + air travel.

45
Q

What are some fruit bat related diseases?

A

Marburg, SARS + Nipah. Reservoir for rabies which transferred to dogs and then humans. Suitable reservoirs as social, similar physiology to humans, are mammals, fly long distances. Urbanisation may have worsened this.

46
Q

How is ELISA used to test for pregnancy?

A

After implantation, increased levels of HCG detected in blood/urine. HCG antigens detected by complementary HCG monoclonal antibodies immobilised on ELISA plate. Results in colour change.

47
Q

How is ELISA used to test for viral pathogens?

A

ELISA plate impregnated with viral antigens coated in blood serum from patient. If blood contains complementary antibodies, then colour change occurs.

48
Q

Is it important to discover new antibiotics?

A

Yes. Especially those from natural environments (nose).

49
Q

What do anti-vaccers believe and why is this mistaken?

A

Vaccines cause autism. 1998 study which ignored overwhelming evidence against this. Study has been debunked. Others don’t vaccinate for religious/animal reasons.

50
Q

Why would non-self skin be rejected? (T cell reaction)

A

When T cells react, it is cell mediated immunity. Non-self antigens detected by T cells. Divide by mitosis to form many killer T cells which destroy foreign cells.

51
Q

Why would a second skin graft from the same donor last for much less time than the first? (T cell reaction)

A

Detect antigen and memory cells from primary response divide by clonal expansion to create more killer T cells to destroy foreign cells. This reaction is faster as already cells present.

52
Q

Why would agglutination occur when B blood mixed with anti-B antibodies?

A

B blood has B antigens on surface of RBCs. Antibodies have complementary shape to them so agglutinate.

53
Q

How does the anti-D treatment work?

A

Mother injected with anti-D immunoglobulin to avoid sensitisation. Neutralises RhD antigens so mother doesn’t produce antibodies.

54
Q

Explain why a measles vaccine wouldn’t be successful if given to a baby under 6 months.

A

Passive antibodies destroy vaccine before immune system has time to detect it and react so no own antibodies made.

55
Q

Suggest how infection with a virus can act as an environmental trigger for diabetes.

A

Immune system more active + insulin producing cells may have been invaded by vaccine.

56
Q

Why would horse serum contain multiple types of antibody?

A

Already produced memory cells for diseases they’ve caught by natural active immunity.
Individual microbes have different shaped antigens so different antibodies.
Already had some vaccines so have antibodies against those illnesses.

57
Q

How would only 1 antibody type be produced in monoclonal antibody production?

A

Only 1 type of antigen injected into mouse.

58
Q

Why is monoclonal antibody production more ethical than horse serum?

A

Closer relationships with horses (pets) + only take antibodies from mouse whilst take plasma from horse + more often.

59
Q

When could agglutination occur?

A

When incompatible blood transfusion carried out (complementary agglutinogen + agglutinin come into contact)

60
Q

Why can group O transfuse blood to all groups but has agglutinins a + b?

A

Agglutinins a + b don’t react with Group A, B or AB as they’re diluted by the greater volume of recipient blood.

61
Q

Give 1 argument against each of these methods of measuring the clear zone:
Diameter of clear zone
Area of clear zone

A

Not perfectly round so value changes depending on what orientation measured.
Clear zone affected by edges of petri dish.

BGS Bio A21 (15 decks)

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