U1 AOS1 Flashcards
Psychological development
The study of how individuals change cognitively, socially and emotionally, from infancy to death.
Define key terms of inheritance, in doing so, explain the process of inheritance
When sperm fuses to the egg in conception, the genetic material between the 2, combine to form an embryo, with a uniquely formed set of genes. During this process, things like blood type and bone structure are formed, and will remain constant throughout the embryo’s life. The collection of an individual’s genes is known as their genotype (plan for individual), which determines physical traits like hair colour, skin colour, among other traits, and the ways that these genes can be expressed are influenced by outer environmental factors.
Distinguish between hereditary and environmental factors
Hereditary factors are genetically inherited from parent to offspring, and can include eye colour, hair colour, or a genetic predisposition to depression/anxiety. Whereas, environmental factors are external influences from the conditions in which an individual grows up in and lives in.
Explain the interlinked relationship of genes and environmental factors, in determining how an individual turns out
Genes and environmental factors have an interlinked relationship, where genes can affect how an individual approaches/engages with the environment that they live in. For example, if an individual presents a genetic predisposition to introversion, they may be less likely to seek out social opportunities, and more prone to working and/or living alone. However, environmental factors also affect how genes are expressed, and whether an individual’s full potential can be realised. For example, if a child’s parents were both skilled violinists, the child may exhibit the genes associated with being a strong musician. Yet, if they were not offered the opportunity to participate in music lessons or receive exposure to a variety of musicians, their musical abilities may not be as strong as they could be.
What are some examples of environmental factors?
- Socioeconomic status - affects access to basic resources, healthcare, quality of education available, extra-curricular activities, etc.
- Physical environment - rurality of the area in which they live in, levels of exposure to diseases, weather, etc.
- Attatchment - children feel protected and loved in their family - insecure attatchment can lead to poor self-esteem, failing to make contact with caregivers, and an inability to maintain stable relationships
- Prenatal environment - treatment the feotus experienced during pregnancy - alcohol use can lead to Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder - lower birth weight, increased risk of prematurity and miscarriage
- Sensory input - Brain growth can be fostered through a versatile amount of sensory stimulation, especially at a young age - creates associations in the brain with the 5 senses, allowing for more complex connections to take place
What is the biopsychosocial model?
An approach that models the complex interaction between social, environmental and psychological factors in mental health. It also recognises the significance of risk and protective factors, in developing a mental health condition. Created under the understanding that to treat a person, you must consider the whole continuum, of the human experience.
Define mental health and mental wellbeing
Mental health is a continuum, measuring how an individual thinks, feels and behaves in response to everyday challenges and stressors.
Distinguish between risk factors and protective factors
Risk factors are factors that increase an individual’s likelihood of developing a mental health disorder, such as a genetic predisposition to a specific trait, whereas protective factors are factors considered to lower, or decrease the chances for an individual to develop a mental health disorder, such as receiving adequate amounts of sleep, or having a strong work-life balance.
What is categorised as mentally healthy?
Individuals who are mentally healthy can exhibit positive self-esteem and celebrate the things they are good at, can cope with everyday challenges and changes and act in a way that contributes to society. They also can express their emotions appropriately and use critical thinking skills.
What is categorised as a mental problem?
Individuals who have a mental health problem, are experiencing a temporary disruption to everyday functioning. They are typically brought on by one, or a combination of, major life stressors (such as moving house, moving schools, experiencing loss and grief, etc.). Symptoms can include a lack of concentration, change in sleep or appetite, social isolation, and losing motivation for tasks they previously enjoyed. If symptoms persist, or the severity of symptoms increases, the mental health problem can escalate into a mental health disorder.
What is categorised as a mental disorder?
Mental health disorders are long-term combinations of thoughts, feelings and behaviours that can impair an individual’s ability to participate in everyday life. They are identified through the 3 Ds; Distress (unpleasant, upsetting emotions like anxiety or anger, either experienced by the individual with the disorder, or the people around them, as a result of that individual) , Dysfunction (an inability to perform everyday tasks to an adequate standard - such as travelling to work or school, maintaining personal hygiene) and Deviance (acting in a way that is different to the expectations of their society or culture, shouting/swearing in public, stripping, etc.). These behaviours cannot be done on purpose, or as a response to emphasise public outcry.
Aboriginal perspectives on mental wellebing
Social factors - wellbeing/development
Social factors are external influences, based on the conditions in which an individual lives in, including their relationships, work/school life, experiences of violence at home, discrimination, etc. Eg. poor education can lead to slower/limited development in information retention and critical thinking skills. Eg. poverty can lead to difficulty holding a job, constant feelings of guilt, self-doubt and low-self-esteem.
Biological factors - wellbeing/development
Biological factors are internal physiological influences, involving genetics or body processes, including genetic predispositions to certain conditions, hormone levels, brain chemistry and sleep quality. Eg. poor sleep leads to reduced ability to learn, problem solve, social-withdrawal and decreased production of growth hormones.
Psychological factors - wellbeing/development
Psychological factors are internal influences , involving the mind/brain and thought processes, including personality traits, beliefs, attitudes to life and memories. Eg. a more optimistic attitude to life may lead to more resilience through hardship, and a greater ability to move forward through struggles.
Quantitative vs Qualitative changes in behaviour
Quantitative changes in development refer to changes in the amount at which an individual has specific feelings/thoughts or performs specific behaviours - eg a quantitative change includes the amount of words a young person may understand. Whereas qualitative changes in development refer to changes in the quality or type of thoughts, feelings and/or behaviours that individual experiences - eg an improved ability to lie or explain abstract thought/concepts.
Individual differences within development
Although there are some established stages of development - these are merely general ideas of the rate at which an individual progresses, they are not strict parameters. Individuals vary in their rate of development - some individuals are faster at achieving certain milestones then others (such as the ability to make and sustain connections with others). Individuals also vary within their own development, one may be faster at achieving cognitive milestones, but slower at achieving emotional ones.
Emotional Development - Define
Emotional development refers to changes in how individuals experience, recognise, interpret and express a range of emotions, in an appropriate manner.
Stages of development
- Infancy (birth-2 years)
- Childhood (2 - 12 years)
- Adolescence (12 - 18 years)
- Adulthood (18 - 65 years)
- Older age (65 years and beyond)
Emotional Development Milestones
- Infancy - smiling from 8 weeks, laughing at 3-4 months, variety of emotions (anger, sadness, fear) - 6 months
- Childhood - temper tantrums to release emotions at 2-3 years, understanding of how different situations affect people in different ways - middle childhood, empathy at older childhood
- Adolescence - development of identity and individuality - feeling emotions at more extreme levels - reliant on peer support
- Adulthood - dependent on circumstances in work, relationships, family - mid-life crisis may occur (feelings of dissatifaction and longing)
- Older age - more optimistic attitudes to future and at peace with situation
Attatchment theory - Emotional Development
The emotional bond between infant and primary caregiver, based off physical contact and comfort contact
Secure attatchment - balance of being dependent and engaging in exploration - higher-self-esteem, can form meaningful relationships and is self-sufficient (consistent tending to infant’s needs)
Insecure-avoidant - won’t seek contact with caregiver, considered equal with stranger - ignores own emotions, won’t seek help, difficulty forming relationships - sometimes caregivers are deeply caring, othertimes they are dismissive of needs
Insecure-resistant - anxious when with caregiver, upset without them - heavily dependent on others, need to feel ‘completed’ - emotionally absent or overly critical parent
Hypothesis Formula
It is hypothesised that POPULATION with the INDEPDENT VARIABLE will PREDICTION on the DEPENDENT VARIABLE in comparison to those who did not have the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE.
Social Development
Social development refers to changes in an individual’s ability to interact with other people and function as a member of society - including
- the ability to make and maintain meaningful relationships
- ability to share and participate in a team
- Skills in managing and solving conflcit
Cognitive development
Cognitive development refers to changes in mental abilities, including the ability to learn, think, imagine and problem-solve.
Learning
Relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs due to experience. This is an ongoing change, which can be modified.
Bandura social learning theory
Theory - humans learn behaviour through observation (dancing, origami). The learner observes the behaviour of the model, and then uses that behaviour, and any consequences it yielded, to guide their future behaviour.
Experimental procedure
- 66 children shown film, with 3 different endings, where child modelled aggressive behaviour to a Bobo Doll
- The children were split into 3 groups -
1 group watched the child receive a candy reward for the behaviour, 1 group saw the child lectured for the behaviour, 1 group saw neither punishment nor reward for the behaviour
- Afterwards the children were placed in a room alone with a Bobo doll and various other toys, where their levels of aggression were measured on a scale of 1-10
- The experiment was then repeated, where children were offered incentives such as juice, stickers or candy to be aggressive to the Bobo Doll
Results -
- Aggressive acts were found highest in group 1 overall
- Without incentives, group 2 was the least aggressive to the doll
- With incentives, the mean score of aggression increased greatly in all 3 groups
- provides some explanation of environmental influence on actions, educational over how positive reinforcement is an effective measure to encourage behaviour
- does not account for non-observational responses that might occur (thought processes, feelings), does not consider the reason behind the situation occuring
Piaget Theory of Development - Stage 1
Piaget spent most of his life investigating cognitive development, assessing his own children. He believed that cognitive development was dependent on how children adapt and explore the world.
- this is achieved through 2 concepts - assimilation (inserting new concept into preconceived ideas/knowledge -their schema (mental structures that organise the world)) and accomodation (adjusting existing knowledge to fit in new ideas)
Sensorimotor stage - 0-2 years
- infants are developing ability to coordinate actions according to their senses - learning is done by relating the 2
- object permenance - understanding that objects still exist if they can’t be seen/felt/heard - using symbols to identify objects
- goal-directed behaviour - carrying out series of actions with purpose in mind - interacting with environment
Critical Period
Rigid periods of development, that require a specific functional skill to be learnt within this timeframe. If a critical period is missed, an individual can never regain that skill.
Eg. first language acquisition - refer to Genie
If a gossling does not see a moving object to imprint on, within 12-17 hours of hatching, they can never imprint on anything
Sensitive Period
Periods in development, that start and end gradually, where there’s an increased sensitivity to specific external stimuli, and learning a specific skill is optimised. If a sensitive period is missed, learning that skill can still occur, it simply requires more time and effort.
Eg. swimming - easiest in young children - takes more time/effort as an adult
Genie - Case Study
- Genie was discovered by social services at the age of 13 (at pre-operational stage of development, despite her age - could recognise symbols and their meaning through drawings but had not yet grasped conservation)
- tied to chair alone, deprived of contact with outside world and physically punished if she tried to speak
- never able to speak properly, could not grasp the grammar system, despite being able to identify and label objects - missed critical period of 0-11 years old, that requires constant exposure to language and sound
Maturation - Define
Genetically programmed changes in an individual, that occur as part of a sequence, at predetermined times. Eg. crawling at 6 months, standing at 7-12 months, walking at 10-18 months, and running at 18-24 months.
Ethical concept/principle
Broad philosophical principles that can help guide researchers to construct a morally right experiment. These are not binding, and have no enforcing authorities.
Beneficence
Ensuring that the benefits outweigh the risks
Non-maleficence
Recognising the level of risk, and taking necessary precautions to minimise that risk
Integrity
Ethical Guidelines
Specific rules for researchers to adhere to, to protect individuals in experiments - enforced by ethics committees
Voluntary participation
Individuals chose to participate out of their own free will, without any form of coercion
Informed consent
Individuals are made aware of the purposes and aims of the experiment before participating, including risks
Piaget - Stage 2
Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)
- egocentrism (limited ability to see other perspectives and priority of themselves)
- animism (the belief inatimate objects have feelings and intentions)
- transformation (understanding how things can change into a different state - eg water into steam)
- centration (focusing on only the most obvious characteristic of a situation or object, disregarding other important factors)
- reversibility (actions can be undone or reversed)
Piaget Development Theory - Stage 3
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
- children start to think logically and apply rules to the world
- conservation (ability to understand that certain properties of an object remain the same, even when the appearance of it changes)
- classification (ability to sort objects into groups based on their features)
Piaget (stage 4)
Formal operational stage (11+)
individuals become more systematic in problem solving, using hypothesis-deductive reasoning (developing a prediction over what an individual believes may happen)
abstract thinking (thinking beyond observational information, and dealing with theories, concepts and principles - allows individuals to use creativity and come up with their own solutions to problems - )
logical reasoning (considering potential consequences of actions, using this to determine the best possible strategy to tackle a situation)
Social Development - milestones
Infancy - parallel play with others, learning to trust caregivers
Childhood - Sharing toys, taking turns, learning independence from parents and making new friendships
Adolescence - More time spent with peers then family, capacity for more intimate relationships
Adulthood - Early adulthood may be focused on finding love, to build a long-term family, career decisions are impactful on relationships, and there’s a growing concern over maintaining the world for future generations
Older age- Better at conflict resolution, may feel isolation and anxiety due to death of close friends
