TWS lecture/seminar notes Flashcards

Question

Chinese and Russians deal with Central Asia...

Answer 1

- Had a trade deal for 125 yrs

Answer 2

- (1756-1763) Between French and Indians -> Brits win - Brits were the main global powers

Answer 3

- High amounts of silver found Iin Bolivia + Mexico - Market in Asia for silver - Entire fiscal system silver dependent Transatlantic slave trade: - 19m people enslaved? - Slavery existed as judicial punishment?! -> Sentencing with freedom at the end?! - Some argue slavery saved some africans from conflict etc?! - (By 1830) 118kg of raw cottom imported to U.S | (Silver importation caused peasent uprising and Ming empire's collapse)

Answer 4

- British Empire banned weaving of cotton cloth in India + obliging Indians (in modern-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh) to buy British-manufactured cotton - Raw materials for British cotton mills sourced from colonies -> particularly from enslaved labor in the Americas.

Answer 5

-> Bengal's Richness -> Before Brits' colonization, Bengal (part of the Mughal Empire, including modern Bangladesh, West Bengal, and parts of India) one of world's richest places, largely due to its cotton and textile industry. -> Robert Clive's Influence: British colonist Robert Clive -> after making substantial wealth in India, returned to secure political power in Britain but failed due to corruption. -> Clive returned to India and played a key role in the Battle of Plassey (Jun 1757) -> he secured British dominance over Bengal by bribing Mughal cavalry commander Mir Jafar. - EIC became a political force by getting rights to collect taxes in Bengal + EIC made 49% profit from tax in first year | (By 1767) EIC controlled 85% of Bengal's exports

Answer 6

- (1769) 10m died (approx. 1/3 of populace) died in Bengal famine - EIC abolised Mughal's system of regulating prices for food shortages, preventing mass deaths

Answer 7

- Price Manipulation -> The Company hoarded rice in its warehouses and sold it at inflated prices + contributing significantly to the famine. - Workers bought rice for 110 kilos per rupee and sold it at 3 kilos per rupee, amassing large profits.

Answer 8

- (By 1767) British East India Company was importing 3.65 million kilos of tea annually from China, and tea became key revenue source, contributing 10% of Brits' govt. income via import taxes. - Brits' begin selling opium to China to balance trade deficit - Opium produced in India and sold in China despite being illegal - (By 1879) Brits selling 6.67 million kg of opium in China annually + Led to addiction, and societal collapse in southern China -

Answer 9

- Wars fought to force China to continue accepting Brits' opium imports - Chinese govt. resistance led to conflicts -> resulting in Brits' victory and continued opium trade.

Answer 10

- (By mid-1800s) U.S had become a major industrial power, 2nd to Brits. - The rapid industrialization was fueled by cotton - (By 1860) U.S supplied 77% of Brits' cotton - U.S expansion across North America -> Led to deaths and displacements of of Native American populations + Europeans bought diseases -> Reducing their numbers by 95%

Answer 11

- (1882) Brits occupied Egypt to secure control of Suez Canal -> vital link to India -> jewel of the British Empire. - (1880s-1905) Scramble for Africa -> Europoean powers rush for control for Africa + (By 1905) Nearly all of Africa under European control exc. Ethipoia and Liberia - Brits' perhaps avoided European conflicts but fuelled local conflicts

Answer 12

U.S. Industrial Growth: - (1898) U.S expanded across pacific -> Acquiring Hawaii + Phillipines after def. Spain - (By 1830) U.S 2nd largest industrial power globally, primarily through cotton and mass immigration across Europe. European Colonialism and Global Economic Changes: - Resources from Asia and Africa start going to Europe

Answer 13

- the British Army conducted 30 military operations in Kenya -> Approx 1 military action every 8 mnths over 18 yrs

Answer 14

(Oct 1904) Herero people genocided -> German governor of southwest Africa (Namibia -> Ordered for every male Herero armed or unarmed to be shot - One of first genocides of 20th century, incluidng Namaqua

Answer 15

- The famines that occured in British-controlled India killed roughly 45m people -> Approx same as total no. of people who died in WW2.

Answer 16

- Many defenders of European colonialism argue famines were natural phenomena and unavoidable - Other defenders argue European colonialism brought 'peace and civilisation' -> Ignoring the violence and exploitation by European colonisers

Answer 17

- Colonel Charles Edward Callwell -> A key figure in Brits' military intelligence wrote 'Small Wars: A Tactical Textbook for Imperial Soldiers' - The txtbook was widely read by British officers + Advocated for tactics like the destruction of villages and food supplies to suppress resistance - Callwell's writings show how terrorism and violence were integral to Brits' imperialism + Contrary to defenders like Nigel Biggar -> Who claimed Brits' rule not inherantly violent | (PM Boris Johnson defended Brits' empire

Answer 18

- Western framework that stereotypes and patronises Eastern societies as inferior , backward and uncivilised - This served as justification for colonialism + Western powers argued they were 'rescuing' non-Western societies from their own regression and violence | (Week 3 Lecture)

Answer 19

- Framework is reductive - Ignores rich histories and cultures + Shows Eurocentric views of the world -> Dismisses autonomy of Eastern civilisations

Answer 20

- Western stereotype is that Eastern societies inherantly violent and cowardly - Bush had this idea during Iraq invasion -> Said that orientalits are deceitful and require strong Western intervention - However, others say Eastern areas were intelligent + created guerilla warfare to combat Western firepower

Answer 21

- Oriental societies viewed as inherantly despotic with rulers and titles - Belief was despotism encoded in DNA cultures - Characters like Dr. Fu Manchu from Western literature and film portray Eastern figures as dangerous, scheming villains -> Making eastern figures seem dangerous and threatening -> Modern scholars of this see this as harmful and racist - However, such societies contributed to global knowledge, mathematics etc (golden age things)

Answer 22

- Viewed as 'backward' by Westerners - Brits + French saw their role as 'civilising societies' - French Cardinal Lavagerie described Islam in North Africa as "14 centuries of ruin and death," -> Viewing Islam as regressive

Answer 23

- Brits' orientalism -> Brit colonisers thought India was 1500 yrs behind India -> Led to 1861 criminal code -> codification of caste - Western colonizers viewed nomadic populations with suspicion -> groups had to be sedentarised e.g. Controlling India and taxing them - India's caste system and cultural practices were misrepresented and misunderstood by the British + Rather than static system -> Indian society dynamic -> Brits' policies reinforced rather than alleviating social inequalities

Answer 24

- John Stuart Mill described China as 'mired in custom' - Philosopher Hegel saw no development in Chinese history, deeming it irrelevant to global progress. - Westerners believed that China could only improve with foreign intervention -> seen during events like the Opium Wars -> Western powers forced their way into Chinese markets under the pretext of “civilizing” the nation. - Modern historians argue that China has a rich and evolving history, and its early developments in agriculture, technology, and governance influenced global civilization -> Western viewpoints perhaps ignore this

Answer 25

- Marx viewed eastern societies, particularly india, as unchaging without history + He believed Brits' socieites could make them change out of their 'passiveness' - However, focusing on economic conditions, critics argue that it underestimated the complexity and dynamism of Eastern societies.

Answer 26

- Western liberals e.g. Alexander Solzhenitsyn and John Stuart Mill - Solzhenitsyn linked Russia’s despotic government to its "Asiatic" roots - Critics of this perspective argue that it ignores the historical agency of non-Western societies + Many non-Western nations embraced democratic reforms without need for Western intervention

Answer 27

- Orientalist thinking continues to influence Western perceptions of the East -> particularly in media, politics, and academia - "clash of civilizations" narrative -> which pits the West against the Islamic world -> a modern manifestation of Orientalism

Answer 28

- Postcolonial theorists, like Said, argue that these views maintain a colonial mindset, promoting Western superiority while ignoring the voices and perspectives of those in the East. - Many argue western viewpoints of orientalism needs to be more nuanced

Answer 29

- Deals with metaphysics and nature of being

Answer 30

- From KSA, he formed relations with ibn saud (KSA founder) - They argued ottoman rulers were betraying islam -> by adopting western ideas - (1804-1811) ibn saud + al-wahhab capture meca and mdina -> ottomans recapture these after

Answer 31

- focused on purging Islamic societies from corrupt rulers + he believed they were betraying islm for westrn values

Answer 32

- Led by Xinquan -> aimed to rid China of foreign influence hoever, adopted christian ideas

Answer 33

- A violent anti-Western uprising - Suppressed by west (had better military technology)

Answer 34

- Began by Choi Je-u -> movement promoted Korean traditions to combat foreign influence - movement criticized Korean rulers for succumbing to foreign power and embraced spiritual nationalism

Answer 35

- Africans mobilised to oppose Western culture - criticizing rulers who engaged in slave trade and Western consumption habits e.g. alcohol

Answer 36

- Led an islmic revival state along Senegal river - opposing local rulers involved in the slave trade and Westernization

Answer 37

- Est. Sokoto Caliphate + Began islmic revolution oin modern-day Nigeria - Criticised corrupt leaders and the influence of Western colonialism

Answer 38

- An indian musilm reformer - He argued in brit-controlled India should embrace western secularism - He believed seperating religion from politics -> would allow musilms to thrive in modern world - His influence allow the creation of modern-day india, pakistan and bangladesh

Answer 39

- (1853) Matthew Perry forced Japan to open its ports + Japan avoided being victims of western imperialism and they rapidly modernised and westernised - Meiji restoration entailed adopting western ideas to turn Japan into a global power - (1905) Japan's victory against Russia + Japan first power to be western empire -> symbolic moment of success in embracing western modernisation

Answer 40

- Chinese intellectuals rejected Confucian traditions - Embraced Western ideologies eventual dominance of nationalism and communism in China

Answer 41

- a musilm reform movement in russian empire + jadidism wanted to modernise islm by adopting westrn culture and education - jadids faced resistance from consservative islmic groups -> who had russian empire's support - (After WW1) jadids aligned themselves with bolsheviks againnst conservative islamic groups -> bolsheviks repressed jadids later

Answer 42

- political activist and Islamic modernist + he argued musilms should adopt Western scientific and technological advances while maintaining Islamic identity - Promoted uniting islmic world (pan-islmism) + reforming islmic governance

Answer 43

- Initially, Japan positioned itself as a leader of Asian resistance to Western imperialism-> Framing itself as a protector of Asian cultures - HOWEVER -> (1910) Japan became an imperial power itself, + colonizing Korea and other areas of Asia + leading to dissolution of earlier pan-asianism idelogy

Answer 44

- (1898) U.S annex Philippines -> Japanese Pan-Asian radicals smuggled arms into Phillipines to support resistance against U.S occupation

Answer 45

- Refers to belief in creating hven on earth - Often scorned by academics + seen as extreme or fanatical

Answer 46

- Brits gained controlled Burma after 3 wars (1824, 1852, 1885). - They turned southern delta into rice farming area + employing Indian and Chinese labor, distorting local Burmese culture - (1885) After 1885 war, Brits' looted Mandalay palace -> leaving Burmese with no avenue of questioning Brits' authority

Answer 47

- (1882) Saya San born - (1928) Began planning rebellion + (1930) Earthquake - San viewed himself as the one who would restore world's moral order - Wanted to make Burma prosperous and awaited 'budhs rturn'

Answer 48

- San used tattoos + To make 'invulnerable to Brits' bullets' - (Dec 22nd 1930) argest anti-imperialist uprising in Southeast Asian history - (End of 1932) Brits executed thousands of rebels + hung 125 and killed approx 1.4k. | (Traditional views view such movements as delusional) ## Footnote However, they must be understood in the context of local culture + deep-seated reactions to Western imperialism

Answer 49

- There’s no genetic basis for cultural differences, yet many still believe otherwise.

Answer 50

- Racists often claim a scientific basis, though they disagree on fundamental classifications of race, showing inconsistency. Unlike scientific taxonomy, where there’s consensus (e.g., tree species) - racists’ rankings (e.g., "best" race) reflect subjective biases, not objective science

Answer 51

- Racism is relatively modern. - Historian Sylvia Wynter notes that before racial distinctions, societies divided people by religion, which one could change. In contrast, racism rigidly classifies groups based on perceived biology, marking a shift to unchangeable, biologically defined identities.

Answer 52

- Not all slavery is based on race - Slavery in the Ottoman Empire targeted Europeans based on opportunity, not race -> unlike modern racial slavery, which emerged with the transatlantic slave trade -> where African people were enslaved based on perceived racial inferiority.

Answer 53

- Spanish Empire: Spaniards initially debated the treatment of Indigenous people in 1550-> Bartolomé de las Casas advocated for their Christianization -> contrasting with other views that saw them as inferior -> This debate led to a relatively integrated, religious perspective. - British Empire: As British colonialism expanded, ideas of racial hierarchy replaced religious rationale, positioning Indigenous people as biologically inferior, thus justifying their new viewpoints

Answer 54

- Racism emerged from Enlightenment thought, which introduced scientific methods to human classification - (1758) Formalized with Carl Linnaeus’s racial classifications, which falsely positioned human diversity as biological hierarchy, embedded in modern governance through biopolitics.

Answer 55

- Modern governance started to treat populations scientifically, leading to the concept of "biopolitics," where states categorize populations - This lays groundwork for modern racial thinking

Answer 56

- This thinking extended beyond racial categories to social divisions (e.g., wealth, gender) - Eugenics, a pseudoscience aiming to control "human evolution" by encouraging the "fit" to reproduce and discouraging those considered "unfit." - Eugenics reflects moral judgments rather than objective science and paved the way for extremist ideologies like those propagated by Nazi Germany | (Biological thinking influenced eugenics)

Answer 57

- Ottoman slavery not racially motivated -> slaves often from places like Ukraine, Poland etc - 'Suleiman the Magnificent' had a Polish wife Roxelana -> She was initially enslaved before Suleiman and taking his heir - This challenges the idea that the Ottomans' slavery was racially motivated | ('Suleiman the Magnificent' was a prominent Ottoman)

Answer 58

- Spanish colonisation led to deaths of 95% of indigenous population in the Americas due to diseases by Europeans - (Aug 1550) Valladolid debate addressed moral and legal status of indigenous people - Sepúlveda argued indigenos people barbaric -> justifying enslavement - Bartolomé de las Casas argued that they were equal + deserved Christian conversion -> not enslavement ## Footnote Spanish Empire did not implement mass enslavement but attempted to assimilate indigenous populations into Christianity, reflecting religious rather than racial motivations.

Answer 59

- Brits' imperialism in Americas emerge later -> Influenced by Enlightenment thinking -> which emphasised rationalism a hierachy on perceived industriousness - John Locke’s ideas justified Brits' colonization by framing indigenous people as non-industrial and irrational -> asserting British rights over land | This ideological shift marked a departure from religious justification t ## Footnote (This ideological shift marked a departure from religious justification to racial and cultural superiority, leading to racially motivated imperial policies)

Answer 60

- (1758) Carl Linneaus made one of world's first racial classifications - Enlightenment thinking introduced scientific classifications, which contributed to racial hierarchies

Answer 61

- Racial categorisation fuelled -> As govts' began studying populations scientifically ## Footnote Racism became embedded in modern thinking as scientific classifications were applied to social hierarchies, beyond just skin color, affecting perceptions of class, gender, and other social identities

Answer 62

- Racism extended to ideas about the "survival of the fittest" -> where different races were believed to compete for dominance - Social Darwinism and eugenics further propagated idea that certain populations should breed to strengthen society -> while others should be discouraged. - Eugenics, presented as scientific, sought to "direct" human evolution by encouraging traits deemed desirable and limiting undesirable traits.

Answer 63

- (1857) Indian Rebellion - (1865) Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica - (In Jamaica) Governor Eyre's crackdown widely supported by Brits' elites -> Viewed as defense against alleged 'racial inferiority' of Jamaicans - backlash against indigenous and formerly enslaved populations solidified racist perspectives within British imperial ideology ## Footnote (These events reinforced racial hierarchies within British imperial policy, contrasting with earlier, less racially motivated approaches).

Answer 64

- Following these uprisings, Britain took direct control of India, ending the East India Company’s rule -> transformed Jamaica into a crown colony, curtailing local governance. - Post-rebellion, British policies increasingly emphasized racial distinctions as inherent and insurmountable -> embedding racism within the Empire's governing ideology.

Answer 65

- Monopolizes coercion within a defined territory. - Fixation on clearly defined borders, contrasting with pre-modern states. - European colonial powers (British, French, Dutch, Portuguese) imposed these concepts globally during imperialism.

Answer 66

- Traditional connections (e.g., waterways facilitating communication) disrupted by imposed European borders - e.g. Division of communities between Indonesia and Malaya (British and Dutch empires) + separation between the Philippines and Indonesia. - Local people who ignored imposed borders labeled as pirates, smugglers, or lawbreakers under European laws.

Answer 67

- Researchers e.g. Nicolopoulos and Yayo, explored effect of European-imposed borders on pre-existing ethno-linguistic and political communities. - European colonial borders disrupted cohesive communities + fracturing pre-colonial African societies.

Answer 68

- The Western legal notion implies equal application of laws regardless of the person - The British Empire, despite claims, did not practice true rule of law + instead, "legalized lawlessness" - "legalized lawlessness" is refers to colonial practice where laws were enforced selectively to suppress populations -> disregarding justice -> to maintain control | ('legalized lawlessness' - a term used by Caroline Elkins0

Answer 69

- Officials like John Malcolm highlighted reliance on military power for governance. - (1880-1900) An example of impunity -> 81 cases of British officials killing servants, all officials acquitted! - (1867) The "Murderous Outrages Act" allowed broad and undefined accusations + leading to executions without proper trials or rights of appeal.

Answer 70

Deportations and harsh treatment, including solitary confinement, characterized British practices.

Answer 71

- Defined by territorial sovereignty and state equality. - Creation and imposition of these principles influenced global interactions and concepts of legitimacy.

Answer 72

- China, forced by treaties (e.g. Treaty of Tianjin) to adopt Western diplomatic protocols + Forced to adopt legal structures after Opium Wars. | (1858 - Treaty of Tianjin)

Answer 73

- Western perceptions linked civilization with state structures + absence of this aspect was equated with barbarism. - This belief justified colonial attitudes and practices that ignored indigenous systems of governance.

Answer 74

- (1864 Geneva Convention) + (1868 St Petersburg Convention) + (1899) Hague Convention) laid foundational rules for wartime conduct.

Answer 75

- These treaties reflected Western-centric perspectives on civilization and legality + reinforcing the colonial mindset.

Answer 76

- Early treaties like the St. Petersburg Convention est. rules governing warfare. - Treaties dictated that civilized states could not execute PoWs taken from other recognized states (e.g., French vs. Germans).

Answer 77

- These rules were explicitly designed for 'civilized' states and did not apply to non-European or "barbarian" nations. - John Stuart Mill argued that reciprocity, a key element of international law + could not be expected from 'barbarians' + different rules were applied to them.

Answer 78

- Labeling non-European societies as "barbarian" had severe consequences. - This classification justified different, often violent, treatment that would be viewed as illegal between "civilized" states

Answer 79

- After 2nd Opium Warnorthern China, particularly around Beijing -> suffered massive looting and violence by European forces. - Artifacts from this period remain in museums, such as the Victoria and Albert Museum in London

Answer 80

- Classifying African socieites as 'barbaric' allowed European powers to bypass rules of warfare - E.g. German soldiers in Namibia executed locals + actions that would have been illegal if the victims were from recognized European states like Belgium or Denmark ## Footnote ("barbarian" was not just an insult but a justification for unequal treatment and violence + marked the difference between rights and deprivation of life for many non-European populations)

Answer 81

- Max Weber defined the state as an "organization which claims the monopoly of legitimate coercion within a given territory."

Answer 82

- Western colonial powers imposed strict, arbitrary borders that disrupted traditional, fluid community interactions. - Waterways, which once connected communities, were turned into borders, dividing groups (e.g., Malays and Indonesians)

Answer 83

- It is important to see whether the colonisers actually benefitted the colonised

Answer 84

- Brits est. penal settlements and the Circular Jail -> where prisoners faced severe conditions and solitary confinement. - These islands symbolized British punitive measures beyond conventional rule of law.

Answer 85

- Tokugawa maintained complex system of controlled external relations, balancing power through restricted trade and diplomacy - This system changed during the Meiji Restoration -> when Japan shifted toward modernization and a Western-style state system

Answer 86

- Modern International Law stemmed from European treaties e.g. Geneva Convention, Hague Convention etc | ('barbarian' is widely regarded as a significant insult) ## Footnote Detailed examples of how international laws applied differently to "civilized" and "barbarian" states during the 19th century

Answer 87

1700: EIC tea imports c.50,000 kg 1767: GB, EIC tea imports c.3,650,000 kg 1879: GB opium exports-6,667,500 kg

Answer 88

- (1750-1850) 22m Africans enslaved Impact on Africa: - Population stagnation in Africa due to loss of life + reduced birth rates. Contrast: Populations in Europe and Asia rose due to the introduction of high-calorie crops from the Americas (potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams) ## Footnote (The trade not only killed but disrupted African societies and economies)

Answer 89

- 51.5 million Europeans emigrated -> 32.6 million predominantly to the U.S -> with others to Argentina, Canada, Brazil, and Australia. Motivations included: - Escaping political and religious oppression -> e.g., Russian Empire. Seeking economic opportunities -> fleeing poverty, and famine e.g. (1840s) Irish famine - (By 1914) 75% of Buenos Aires’ and Detroit's populations were foreign-born

Answer 90

- (1600-1900) Siberian populace rose from 70k to 5 million - One of history's largest migration

Answer 91

- (1807) Brits abolish slave trade + (1833) Brits abolish slavery - (1865) U.S abolish slave trade + (1888) Brazil abolish slave trade ## Footnote (Result: Labor shortages in colonies and industries previously dependent)

Answer 92

- (1830-1937) 30 million Indians were moved across the British Empire (e.g., Mauritius, Fiji, British Guiana). - 12% death rate for those on transit + 18% death rate for those on transatlantic slave ships ## Footnote (Indian and Chinese migrants were used as substitutes for enslaved laborers)

Answer 93

- Many Chinese were sent to -> (1850s) Australia + (1870s) California under exploitative contracts - (By 1851) 9% of Australia’s non-Indigenous populace was Chinese

Answer 94

- Limited Chinese immigration and denied citizenship to Chinese migrants. - Reflected racial discrimination -> as European immigrants faced fewer restrictions.

Answer 95

- Advocated for white British immigration -> explicitly excluding non-European immigrants. - Promoted racially segregated immigration policies -> as seen in propaganda like The New Australian magazine

Answer 96

- A ship carrying 165 Sikh passengers was barred entry to Canada. - The Canadian govt. used racist legal justifications to deny entry, leading to violent standoffs and deportations

Answer 97

WW1 Chinese workers: - Over 100k Chinese laborers recruited by Brits + 40k by France for non-combat roles in Europe -> often in dangerous conditions - Immigration into Britain rose sharply after WW2 due to labour shortages + economic strain ## Footnote (Immigration into Britain existed before WW2, but after WW2 it became a lot more prevalent)

Answer 98

- Britain faced a labor shortage after WWII despite the war ending, primarily due to the continuation of conscription for a large military and emigration to countries like Australia, America, and Canada - Labor shortage drove the government to seek migrant labor for post-war reconstruction (e.g., National Health Service establishment, slum clearance, rebuilding bomb-damaged infrastructure)

Answer 99

- (Jun 22nd 1948) Empire Windrush entered Britain + (1948-1952) 1.5k immigrants annually + (1957-1960) 42k immigrants to 58k + (1961) 161k Carribean-born residents in Britain

Answer 100

- Migration was driven by both labor demands in Britain and limited opportunities in the Caribbean post-independence (Phillips & Phillips, 1999) - Many migrants faced discrimination, violence, and systemic exclusion despite their contributions (Gilroy, 1987)

Answer 101

- Triggered by a domestic dispute involving a Jamaican-born man and his white wife. - Escalated into sustained riots, reflecting racial tensions in working-class areas like Notting Hill. - Led to the formation of the Notting Hill Carnival as a response to community trauma and solidarity ## Footnote The riots highlighted systemic housing inequalities and racist attitudes (Solomos, 1993)

Answer 102

- Boycott protested employment discrimination by the Bristol Bus Company, which excluded Black workers due to union opposition. - (Sep 1963) Successfully ended with the hiring of the first Black bus employee. - Contributed to the 1965 Race Relations Act and subsequent anti-discrimination legislation.

Answer 103

- (Jan 18th 1981) Fire at a birthday party killed 13 people -> Seen as an arson attack on the Carribean community -> Police criticised as inadequate - (Mar 2nd 1981) Black People's Day of Action -> 20k people marched in protest ## Footnote Media outlets like The Sun misrepresented the peaceful protest, exacerbating tensions (Cohen, 1996)

Answer 104

- Politicians like Oswald Mosley, Enoch Powell, and Margaret Thatcher used racial tensions for political gains, normalizing anti-immigrant sentiments - (1968) Powell's Rivers of Blood speech argued against immigration, predicting cultural conflict and the persecution of white Britons - (1978) Thatcher’s remarks on Britain being “swamped” by different cultures legitimized hostility towards immigrants. - (2011) David Cameron criticized multiculturalism, advocating "muscular liberalism" to integrate immigrant communities - These narratives shaped public opinion and immigration policies, fostering systemic racism (Gilroy, 1987; Hansen, 2000). ## Footnote (2023) Recent statements by figures like Robert Jenrick echo similar concerns, suggesting a continuity in conservative rhetoric on immigration control

Answer 105

- U.S. opposed European imperialism and supported decolonization efforts - (1945) the U.S. relinquished control of the Philippines, marking a symbolic break with imperialism. - (Post-1947) U.S. policy shifted due to Cold War pressures, prioritizing global alliances over opposition to empires (Foner, 2021). - (By 1950) Korean War cemented U.S.'s pragmatic acceptance of European empires to counter the Soviet threat

Answer 106

- Asian empires, like British India and French Indochina, were weakened by Japanese occupation during the war, making postwar European reassertion difficult (Mazower, 1998) - In Africa, European colonial powers retained control but were economically weakened. Postwar economic modernization plans intensified exploitation, especially in resource-rich colonies like Ghana (Cooper, 2005)

Answer 107

- European powers were financially devastated post-WWII, prompting reliance on colonies for economic recovery - Britain, nearly bankrupt, depended on loans from the U.S. while increasing the economic exploitation of colonies (Stafford Cripps, 1947) - France, under de Gaulle, outright dismissed autonomy for colonies, focusing on economic extraction (Thomas, 2022)

Answer 108

- British India gained independence due to rising resistance and untenable economic costs. - Indian taxpayers previously funded British imperialism -> but post-1930s reforms required Britain to bear these costs, leading to insolvency (Brown, 2011). - (1947) Partition caused unprecedented violence, with over 1 million deaths and long-term geopolitical instability in Kashmir

Answer 109

- British policies in Kenya involved mass internment and systematic exploitation - During the Mau Mau Uprising (1952–1960), the British established "protected villages," akin to concentration camps, housing over 1.5 million Kikuyu (Elkins, 2005). Sir Eric Griffith-Jones, Kenya’s Attorney General, likened British actions to Nazi practices (Griffith-Jones, 1957)

Answer 110

- Belgian Congo’s rushed independence in 1960 led to chaos and manipulation by Belgium - Belgium created a fragmented constitution to maintain control over resource-rich regions like Katanga (Nzongola-Ntalaja, 2002). Patrice Lumumba’s assassination, orchestrated with Belgian involvement, exacerbated instability

Answer 111

- Algeria’s independence was achieved through a brutal eight-year war against France. - Over 300,000 to 1.5 million people died during the Algerian War (Evans, 2012). - The conflict ended in 1962, making Algeria a symbol of anti-colonial resistance

Answer 112

- Formal independence often masked continued economic dependency, termed "neocolonialism. - (1945) The CFA Franc, introduced by France, remained a tool for economic control over African states post-independence (Cooper, 2014). - Many former colonies struggle with external influence, limited sovereignty, and enduring economic inequalities

Answer 113

- Exceptionalist View -> Britain as both European and global due to extensive overseas connections through the Empire. - Post-Empire Identity Crisis -> Britain struggles with its identity and purpose after losing its empire. - Union and Imperial Origins -> UK's formation was rooted in the Empire -> with Scotland joining due to financial collapse and seeking imperial opportunities. ## Footnote The Scottish role in imperial administration was disproportionately large. The Empire’s collapse has led to questions about Britain’s identity and values (MacKenzie, 1996)

Answer 114

- British govts. frequently discuss "British values," -> often tying them to concepts like the rule of law + human rights. - Origins of human rights implementation are debated -> but Haiti is acknowledged as the first to institutionalize these rights after its revolution. ## Footnote The narrative of Britain as a global promoter of values is linked to its imperial self-image (Colley, 1992)

Answer 115

- Physical legacy in Britain marked by imperialist names and monuments -> such as Penny Lane in Liverpool (named after slave trader James Penny) + Watkin Road in Wembley (linked to imperial railways in the Congo) - The naming practices perpetuate historical amnesia about the atrocities linked to these figures (Hall et al., 2014). - Campaigns to address these legacies are often dismissed despite widespread profit in construction + urban renewal sectors | ('amnesia' perhaps refers to how people forget these figures + history) ## Footnote Efforts to rename imperialist landmarks often face resistance due to cost or lack of awareness.

Answer 116

- Artifacts like the Benin Bronzes were looted during imperial conquests (e.g., Benin City, 1897) + displayed in institutions like the British Museum. - These items are often not returned to their countries of origin despite calls for repatriation - The British Museum argues that the objects represent global culture, but critics note the hypocrisy of keeping them hidden from view (Hicks, 2020). - Institutionalized looting was legal under British military "prize laws," further complicating modern restitution debates

Answer 117

- Surveys reveal enduring pride in the Empire among the British public. I - (2014) 59% viewed the Empire as something to be proud of + Just 19% considered it shameful. - This reflects an education system that has historically glorified imperial achievements - Public opinion on the Empire is shaped by selective historical narratives that emphasize its "civilizing mission" while downplaying its exploitative aspects (Kumar, 2019). - Political figures often resist acknowledging the full scope of imperial atrocities, framing them as sources of national pride (Johnson, 2020)

Answer 118

- British Museum symbolizes imperial power by retaining looted artifacts and presenting them as cultural treasures. - Efforts to address this legacy -> Such as repatriation, are often dismissed or met with bureaucratic + ideological resistance. - Institutions like the British Museum reflect how imperial legacies shape modern national identity (MacGregor, 2010).

Answer 119

- Tewodros II (Emperor of Ethiopia, mid-19th century) faced threats from Islamic fundamentalists invading from Sudan + sought to centralize power to address these issues - Resistance from local aristocrats led to civil anger as well as the external invasions - Tewodros II appealed to Christian Britain for assistance but was ignored -> prompting him to take European hostages to gain attention

Answer 120

- Organized an Anglo-Indian force, comprising 13k soldiers, 26k civilians + extensive logistical support -> to rescue hostages and confront Tewodros. - Successfully stormed Tewodros’ fortress at Magdala after an arduous journey across harsh terrains. - The mission resulted in minimal British casualties but significant Ethiopian losses. - Tewodros II committed suicide to avoid capture

Answer 121

- British forces looted the fortress, seizing artifacts and treasures - Among those taken was Prince Alemayehu, Tewodros' young son -> who was brought to Britain

Answer 122

- Alemayehu was educated at Rugby School and later at Sandhurst Military Academy. - Likely faced racism and isolation as one of the few Africans in Victorian elite institutions - Died at 19 under unclear circumstances; his grave is located in St. George’s Chapel, Windsor Castle

Answer 123

- Since 2006, Ethiopia has repeatedly requested the return of Alemayehu’s remains. British Government’s Position: - Claims exhumation would disturb nearby graves. - Critics argue that modern archaeology could handle the process sensitively

Answer 124

- Ethiopian artifacts looted during the expedition are still held in Britain. - Streets in London, such as Magdala Road, serve as subtle reminders of this history, often unknown to residents

Answer 125

- Tewodros II's centralization efforts were part of broader reforms to strengthen Ethiopia, but his methods alienated local nobility (Pankhurst, 1998). - His letters to Queen Victoria reflect a diplomatic appeal for Christian solidarity, highlighting a global aspect of 19th-century geopolitics (Rubenson, 1976)

Answer 126

- The scale of the British force underscores the military and logistical superiority deployed for colonial objectives (Bahru, 2001). - Looting included valuable manuscripts and artifacts, which remain in British museums (Finneran, 2007)

Answer 127

- Alemayehu’s life reflects the challenges of cultural dislocation and racial prejudice in Victorian Britain (Pitt, 2019). - His death, labeled as "from a broken heart," is symbolic of his isolation and loss (Pankhurst, 1998).

Answer 128

- Modern archaeology and diplomacy could feasibly return the remains without disturbance, as seen in other repatriation cases (Gore, 2021). - Continued retention of Alemayehu’s remains fuels debates about colonial legacy and restitution (Planel, 2016) Public Awareness: - Streets named after Magdala in London illustrate overlooked colonial narratives embedded in public spaces (Bahru, 2001)