Tropes and Schemes Flashcards
Syntax
The way words are arranged within a sentence
Short Sentence
Straightforward, powerful
Sentence Length
Good writers use a variety for emphasis. Sentence variety is all about effect. Longer, more complex sentences can enhance the impact of shorter, more direct sentences.
Long Sentences
Descriptive, detailed, elaborative
Word
A unit of language, consisting of one or more spoken sounds
Phrase
A group of two or more words that express a single idea, but do not form a complete sentence
Clause
A syntactic construction containing a subject and predicate that forms part of a sentence or constitutes a whole simple sentence
Independent Clause
Simple, complete idea containing a subject and predicate. They can stand alone or be combined with other independent clauses
Dependent Clause
Unfinished thoughts that cannot stand alone; they are a type of sentence fragment and must be joined to independent clauses to function as a complete thought
Sentence Structures
Again, variety = success
Simple
One independent clause with a subject and predicate
Compound
Two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction
Complex
One independent clause and at least one dependent clause
Compound-Complex
Multiple independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses
Sentence Types
Use is dependent on context and intent
Declarative
A statement
Exclamatory
A strong feeling
Interrogative
A question
Imperative
A command
Periodic
A long sentence in which the main clause, or predicate, is withheld until the end. There are two types of periodic sentences:
- One that delays the predicate until the end of the sentence
- One that delays both the subject and the predicate until the end
This delaying tactic in a periodic sentence builds anticipation, suspense, and excitement as the reader finally reaches the climax upon reading the end of the sentence. Allows the writer to put all reasoning/evidence up front before making the final point.
Loose, or Cumulative
An independent clause followed by a series of words, phrases, or clauses that gather details about a person, place, event, or idea
Punctuation
Successful writers use a variety here too
Semicolon (;)
Gives equal weight to two or more independent clauses in a sentence. Writers use this to reinforce parallel ideas and show how both ideas are equally important
Colon (:)
Directs the reader’s attention to the words that follow, almost announcing the information to follow. Writers use this to show the reader that the information after the colon is important
Em Dash (—)
Marks a sudden change in thought or tone, or sets off a brief summary
Ellipsis (…)
Deliberate omission of a word or words which are readily implied by the context
Quotation Marks (“…”)
Implies the author’s disagreement with the meaning of a word. Typically used for sarcastic effect
Schemes
Schemes are figures of speech that deal with word order, letters, and sounds. Figures of speech in classical rhetoric are defined as “a form of speech artfully varied from common usage”
PARALLELISM
Similar grammatical structures in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses. Provide emphasis to a central theme or idea
ANTITHESIS
Two opposite ideas put together to achieve a contrasting effect
ASYNDETON
Deliberate omission of conjunctions between coordinate words, phrases, or clauses. Produces a hurried rhythm in the sentence
Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinate, or join two or more sentences, main clauses, or words which are of the same syntactic importance, giving equal emphasis
Clause
Usually consists of a subject and predicate
Predicate
Part of the sentence that provides information about the subject. It must include the verb and can include a modifier
POLYSYNDETON
The opposite of asyndeton, polysyndeton is the deliberate use of many conjunctions. Suggests flow or continuity in some instances, special emphasis in others
ANAPHORA
Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginnings of successive clauses. Always used deliberately, this scheme helps to establish a marked rhythm and often produces a strong emotional effect
EPISTROPHE
Repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses. Sets up a pronounced rhythm and secures a special emphasis
SYMPLOCE
Simultaneous use of anaphora and epistrophe
CLIMAX
Words or phrases arranged by degrees of increasing significance
ANTIMETABOLE
Repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order. Produces the impressive turn of phrase typical of an aphorism
ALLITERATION
Repetition of initial or medial consonants in two or more adjacent words. Contributes to a euphony of verse; sometimes used for humorous effect
Diction
Refers to the words the writer chooses to convey a particular meaning
Specific words, depends on subject, purpose, context, audience
Subject
Often determines how specific or sophisticated the diction needs to be
Purpose
Words chosen to impart a particular effect on the reader reflect the writer’s purpose
Context
Formal diction is reserved for scholarly writing and serious texts
Audience
An author who uses sophisticated diction knows he is writing for an intelligent audience. An author who uses more informal diction knows she is writing for an audience with varied needs or expectations.
Tropes
Tropes are figures of speech with an unexpected twist in the meaning of words. It is an artful deviation from the ordinary or principal significance of a word. Below are several rhetorical tropes organized by function
METAPHOR
A comparison between two unlike things; stating something is something else when it can’t possibly be. The comparison draws out a unique commonality between the two
SIMILE
An explicit comparison between two unlike things using the words “like” or “as.” The comparison in a simile is less powerful than that of a metaphor
ANALOGY
although analogies tend to utilize people, places, events that are somewhat similar
ZEUGMA
Use of two different words in a grammatically similar way but producing different, often incongruous (unsuitable) meanings. The effect can be humorous, but not always
PERSONIFICATION
Investing abstractions or inanimate objects with human qualities or abilities. The way in which this trope gives its subject human qualities allows it to lend itself to emotional appeals
HYPERBOLE
The use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect. Hyperbole can be a serviceable figure of speech if used with restraint and for a calculated effect. Under the stress of emotion, it will slip out naturally and seem appropriate. Original and unique hyperboles will produce the right note of emphasis
LITOTES
Deliberate use of understatement, not to deceive someone but to enhance the impressiveness of what is stated
IRONY
Use of a word in such a way as to convey a meaning opposite to the literal meaning of the word. Irony must be used with great caution: if the speaker misjudges the intelligence of her audience, she may find that her audience takes her words in their ostensible sense rather than in the intended opposite sense
OXYMORON
The combination of two terms that are ordinarily contradictory to produce a startling effect. If fresh and apt, oxymorons display the subtle and shrewd ability to see similarities
PARADOX
A statement that appears to be contradictory, but which includes a latent truth. Paradox is like an oxymoron in that both are built on contradictions, but paradox may not be a trope at all, because it involves not so much a “turn” of meaning in juxtaposed words as a “turn” of meaning in the whole statement
