TRANSPORT, ENERGY & THE ENVIRONMENT

Question 1

_____ are related to a range of environmental considerations from local to global.

Answer 1

Transportation systems

Question 2

____ are related to transport modes, their energy supply systems, their emissions, and the infrastructures over which they operate.

Answer 2

Environmental impacts

Question 3

The ____ of economic activities, notably their ____, is also increasingly linked with environmental impacts.

Answer 3

spatial structure
land use

Question 4

The sustainability of transport systems has become one core issue in the provision of mobility, particularly _________.

Answer 4

decarbonization

Question 5

• Human activities are dependent on the usage of several forms and sources of ___ to perform work.
• The more available and affordable ___ sources are, the more capabilities and opportunities can be mobilized.
• The challenge is to extract and use this ____ effectively.

Answer 5

energy

Question 6

Types of physical work related to human activities

Answer 6

▸ Modification of the environment
▸ Appropriation of resources
▸ Processing resources
▸ Transportation

Question 7

The more energy consumed, the greater the amount of work realized, with ______ correlated with ______.

Answer 7

economic development
higher levels of energy consumption

Question 8

A common pattern in energy transition involves moving to sources that have a _____, but that requires a higher level of technical expertise to be extracted, processed, stored, and distributed

Answer 8

higher energy content

Question 9

Several utility factors favor the usage of petroleum as the main source of energy in general,
and for transport activities in particular:

Answer 9

1. Occurrence
2. Transferability
3. Energy content
4. Reliability
5. Storability
6. Flexibility
7. Safety
8. Cleanliness
9. Price

Question 10

____ is the location of energy sources considering the demand. Several energy sources are only available when a transportation system able to transfer large quantities of the energy resource is available. The exploitation of oil fields in several regions of the World (Middle East, Siberia, etc.) was made possible when an efficient
transportation system based upon pipelines and tankers was established.

Answer 10

Occurrence

Question 11

The distance over which an energy source can be transported
depends on its physical form (solid, liquid or gas), energy content, and on the available transport technology.

Most petroleum products are in a liquid, more or less viscous, form. They thus offer an efficient form to be transferred, which is less convenient than solids such as coal, but much more than gases. Furthermore,
economies of scale in transportation, notably maritime, enhance transferability by reducing the unit costs.

Answer 11

Transferability

Question 12

A low energy content is inadequate when demand is high and
concentrated in space.

Gasoline and other petroleum products have a high energy content compared to other fossil fuels like coal, but even more when compared to gravity (hydroelectricity) and solar energy.

Answer 12

Energy content

Question 13

Continuous availability is an advantage over intermittent sources. The emergence of many sources and continuous supply through maritime and land routes has given a relative reliability for petroleum products.

Answer 13

Reliability

Question 14

An energy source has an advantage when it can be stored to answer
variations in demands and interruptions of supplies.

In liquid form, petroleum products are easily stored and several countries have built strategic reserves.

Answer 14

Storability

Question 15

The capacity of an energy source to answer multiple uses is an advantage
to energy sources that can fit a single purpose.

In addition to providing energy, petroleum by-products are the basis of whole industrial sectors (petrochemical) that synthesize goods like plastics, fertilizers, pharmaceutical products and synthetic rubber.

Answer 15

Flexibility

Question 16

Sources that can be provided and used at low risks (human and environmental) are an advantage. Although the petrochemical industry presents some risks (accidents
during extraction, refining, transport and usage), oil is considered a safe source of energy for its production and usage.

Answer 16

Safety

Question 17

Sources that produce few waste and are cleanly used are an advantage.
Relative to other conventional energy sources like coal, oil is cleaner to use and produces a limited amount of waste. Still, the use of petroleum products has negative environmental impacts such as the emission of particulates and carbon into the
atmosphere.

Answer 17

Cleanliness

Question 18

Low cost energy sources are generally preferred.

Cost is a function of the occurrence, the transferability and the energy content of an energy source.

With massive investments on large scale extraction, refining and transport of petroleum products, a constant supply and intensive competition from several oil producing countries, petroleum products prices are cheaper than many other sources.

Answer 18

Price

Question 19

Energy consumption has a _____ with the level of development.

Answer 19

strong correlation

Question 20

Among developed countries, transportation now accounts for between _____ of
consumed energy.

Answer 20

20 and 25%

Question 21

The benefits conferred by _____, notably in terms of better comparative advantages and access to resources, have so far compensated the growing _____ spent to support this expanded spatial system.

Answer 21

additional mobility
amount of energy

Question 22

At the beginning of the 21st century, the transition reached a stage where fossil fuels, such as _____, are dominant. Out of the world’s total power production, ___ is
derived from fossil fuels.

Answer 22

petroleum
87%

Question 23

▸ Transportation and energy can be seen from a ______where giving momentum to a mass (passengers, vehicles, cargo, etc.) requires a proportional amount of energy.
▸ How energy is used has a strong _______.
▸ There is often a compromise between _______ related to the
desired economic returns.

▸ Passengers and high-value goods can be transported by fast but energy-intensive modes since the _____ of their mobility tend to have a high value, which conveys the willingness to use more energy.

▸ ______, mainly those achieved by maritime transportation, are linked to low energy consumption per unit of mass being transported, but at a slower speed.

▸ Comparatively, ____ has high energy consumption levels linked to high-speed services.

Answer 23

cost-benefit perspective

modal characteristic

speed and energy consumption

time component

air freight

Question 24

The transportation market has a broad spectrum of energy consumption which are particularly
impacted by three issues:

Answer 24

▸ The price level and volatility of energy sources
▸ The price level and volatility of energy sources
▸ Environmental externalities

Question 25

The _____ of energy sources which are dependent on the processes used in their production. _____ are preferred as they enable long term investments in transportation assets. Volatile energy prices are not contingent on investments in transport technology.

Answer 25

price level and volatility

Stable energy sources

Question 26

______in the level of energy performance of transport modes and terminals.

An important goal is thus to improve this energy performance since it is linked with direct economic benefits for both operators (lower operating
costs) and users (lower rates).

Answer 26

Technological and technical changes

Question 27

_____related to the use of specific modes and energy sources and the goal to reduce them.

Answer 27

Environmental externalities

Question 28

Transportation accounts for approximately ___of world energy demand and about ___of all the oil used each year.

Answer 28

29%
61.5%

Question 29

The impacts of transport on energy consumption are diverse, including on activities that are necessary for the provision of transport infrastructures and facilities:

Answer 29

▸ Vehicle manufacture, maintenance, and disposal
▸ Vehicle operation
▸ Infrastructure construction and maintenance
▸ Management of transport operations
▸ Energy production and trade

Question 30

Energy consumption has substantial modal variations:

Answer 30

• Land transportation
• Maritime transportation
• Air transportation

Question 31

Energy consumption of transport between the mobility of passengers and freight:

Answer 31

• Passenger transportation
• Freight transportation

Question 32

Alternative fuels to reduce emissions of harmful pollutants.:
HEH BioNat

Answer 32

▸ Biofuels
▸ Natural gas
▸ Hydrogen
▸ Electricity
▸ Hybrid vehicles

Question 33

▸ accounts for the vast majority of energy consumption.
▸ Road transportation alone is consuming, on average, 85% of the total energy used by
the transport sector in developed economies
▸ road transportation is almost the sole mode responsible for additional energy
demands over the last 25 years.
▸ Rail transport remains four times more efficient for passenger and twice as efficient for
freight movement as road transport.
▸ Rail transport accounts for 6% of global transport energy demand.

Answer 33

Land transportation

Question 34

▸ accounts for 90% of cross-border world trade, as measured by volume.
▸ Water transport uses only 7% of all energy consumed by transport activities, hence, it
is the most energy-efficient mode
▸ Fuel consumption is an important input in maritime shipping (related to ship design (hydrodynamics), utilization level, operational speed, idle time (waiting at ports), and
even weather conditions)
▸ For terminal operations, figures vary, but a container terminal usually has 70% of its energy consumption provided by fossil fuels (e.g. yard equipment) and 30% by
electricity.

Answer 34

Maritime transportation

Question 35

▸ plays an integral part in the globalization of transportation networks.
▸ The aviation industry accounts for 8% of the energy consumed by transportation.
▸ Air transport has high energy consumption levels, linked to high speeds.
▸ Fuel is the second most significant cost for the air transport industry accounting for 13-20% of total expenses.
▸ Technological innovations, such as more efficient engines and better aerodynamics, have led to a continuous improvement of the energy efficiency of each new
generation of aircraft.

Answer 35

Air transportation

Question 36

▸ plays an integral part in the globalization of transportation networks.
▸ The aviation industry accounts for 8% of the energy consumed by transportation.
▸ Air transport has high energy consumption levels, linked to high speeds.
▸ Fuel is the second most significant cost for the air transport industry accounting for 13-
20% of total expenses.
▸ Technological innovations, such as more efficient engines and better aerodynamics,
have led to a continuous improvement of the energy efficiency of each new
generation of aircraft.

Answer 36

air transportation

Question 37

▸ accounts for 40 to 50% of energy consumption derived from transportation activities.
▸ Energy consumption is dominated by road transportation, which can account for 80%
of domestic consumption.
▸ Rail and maritime shipping, the two most energy-efficient modes, have more marginal
consumption levels.
▸ Coastal and inland waterways also provide an energy-efficient method of transporting
passengers and cargoes.
▸ Because of these energy advantages, short sea shipping is being considered as a
transport alternative and part of national transport policies of countries having an
extensive coastline.
▸ The rationale for favoring coastal and inland navigation is based on lower energy
consumption rates and the overall lower externalities of water transportation.
▸ The energy source with the lowest cost is usually preferred.
▸ The dominance of petroleum-derived fuels results from the relative simplicity with
which they can be stored and used in internal combustion engines.
▸ Other fossil fuels (natural gas, propane, and methanol) can be used as transportation
fuels as well but require a more complicated storage system.
▸ The main issue concerning the large-scale uses of alternative vehicle fuels is the significant capital investments required in distribution facilities compared with
conventional fuels.
▸ Another issue is that in terms of energy density, these alternative fuels have lower efficiency than gasoline and thus require a greater volume of onboard storage to cover the equivalent distance as gasoline-propelled vehicles if performance is kept constant.

Answer 37

Freight transportation

Question 38

▸ The issue of transportation and the environment is ____
▸ Transportation conveys substantial socioeconomic benefits but has significant impacts on the environment
▸ The growth of passenger and freight mobility has expanded the role of transportation as a source of emission of pollutants.
▸ Total emissions are generally a function of the ____ of each transport mode than their level of activity, which implies a variety of impacts on the environment:

Answer 38

paradoxical
emission factor

Question 39

variety of impacts on the environment

Answer 39

DIRECT IMPACTS
INDIRECT IMPACTS
CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Question 40

The immediate consequence of transport activities on the
environment

Answer 40

DIRECT IMPACTS

Question 41

The secondary (or tertiary) effects of transport activities on
environmental systems.

Answer 41

INDIRECT IMPACTS

Question 42

The additive, multiplicative or synergetic consequences
of transport activities.

Answer 42

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Question 43

The 1990s were characterized by a realization of global environmental issues, epitomized by the growing concerns between anthropogenic effects and climate change.

▸ Transportation also became an important dimension of the concept of ____

Answer 43

sustainability

Question 44

▸ The complexities of the impacts have led to much ___ in environmental
policy, the role of transportation, and mitigation strategies.

▸ The transportation sector is often ____, especially through the construction and maintenance of road infrastructure, which tends to be free of access.
▸ Sometimes, ____ in transport modes, terminals, and infrastructure can be at odds with environmental issues. If the owner and the regulator are the same (different branches of the government), then there is a risk that regulations will not
be effectively complied to.
▸ ____ incurred by transportation activities, notably environmental damage, are generally not fully assumed by the users.
▸ If environmental costs are not included in this appraisal, the usage of the car is consequently subsidized by society, and costs accumulate as environmental pollution.

This requires due consideration as the number of vehicles, especially automobiles, is steadily increasing.

Answer 44

controversy
subsidized
public stakes
Total costs

Question 45

THE TRANSPORT-ENVI LINK
▸ The relationships between transport and the environment are _____
▸ Historically, transportation was associated with very few negative environmental impacts because of the modes used and the low mobility levels.

▸ Urbanization in the 19th century and the reliance on horses created problems concerning the disposal of manure.

▸ Further, industrialization and the development of steam engines lead to ____ (e.g. soot) near ports and rail yards. Still, these issues remained marginal and localized.

▸ 20th century yielded comprehensive perspective about the links between transportation and the environment emerged, particularly with the massive diffusion
of transportation modes such as the automobile and the airplane.
▸ The 1960s and 1970s were crucial decades in the realization of the negative environmental impacts of human activities and the need for regulations.

Answer 45

multidimensional
pollution

Question 46

▸ ____ set clear air quality standards
▸ For transportation, it immediately set emissions standards for a list of acknowledged pollutants such as carbon dioxide, volatile organic compounds, and nitrogen oxide.
▸ The outcome was a rapid decline in air pollutant emissions by the transportation sector through better engine technology.
▸ The ____provided a similar regulatory environment concerning
water pollution and the ability to build infrastructures over wetlands.

Answer 46

Clean Air Act of 1970
Clean Water Act of 1977

Question 47

▸ The 1990s were characterized by a realization of ______,
epitomized by the growing concerns between anthropogenic effects and climate change.
▸ Transportation also became an important dimension of the concept of sustainability
▸ Transportation activities support increasing ____ for passengers and
freight, notably in urban areas.
▸ Transport activities have resulted in growing levels of _____
▸ The transportation sector is becoming increasingly linked to environmental problems:

Answer 47

global environmental issues
mobility demands
motorization and congestion

Question 48

environmental
problems: CLAN BSW

Answer 48

▸ Climate Change
▸ Air Quality
▸ Noise
▸ Water Quality
▸ Soil Quality
▸ Biodiversity
▸ Land Take

Question 49

▸ ___issues have been comprehensively addressed in advanced economies.
▸ In developing economies, rapid motorization has shifted the concern to the large cities of China and India among those the most impacted by the deterioration of air
quality.
▸ Smog, CO, NOx

Answer 49

Air quality

Question 50

▸ ___ is a frequent result of road
transportation in urban areas, which is the cumulative outcome of all the noise generated by vehicles (ranging
from 45 to 65 dB), impairs the quality of life and property values.
▸ Many noise regulations impose mitigation if noise reaches a defined level, such as sound walls and other
soundproofing techniques.

Answer 50

Ambient noise

Question 51

▸ ____ have an impact on hydrological
conditions and water quality.
▸ Fuel, chemicals, and other hazardous particulates discarded from aircraft, cars, trucks, and trains or port and airport terminal operations can contaminate _____
▸ _____ represent the most important segment of water quality
impact of the transportation sector.

Answer 51

Transport activities
hydrographic systems
Marine transport emissions

Question 52

The main effects of marine transport operations on water quality predominantly arise from:

Answer 52

▸ dredging
▸ waste
▸ ballast waters
▸ oil spills

Question 53

The ___ of an oil spill is an indication of its potential environmental impact.

Yet, the two most damaging oil spills were not the largest but took place nearby ecologically rich areas,
particularly in terms of fishing. The ____ was carrying 223,000 tons of oil when it sank in Portsall Bay, France, on March 17, 1978. Some 400 km of Breton coastlines were affected.

Following the incident, not only was the ecological equilibrium greatly disturbed but the local economy based on fishing was also completely paralyzed.

On March 24, 1989, the oil tanker ____ hit a reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska, thereby spilling
37,000 tons out of oil of its 180,000 tons load, a spill that affected 1,700 km of coastlines.
Even if comparatively to other major spills it was of lower volume, it still carries today the title of the largest animal death toll. The Prestige and Sea Empress oil spills that occurred
off the European Atlantic generated a significant amount of pollution that destroyed aquatic species including algae, mollusks, crustacean, marine mammals, fish and invertebrates.

Answer 53

size

Amoco Cadiz

Exxon Valdez

Question 54

▸ The environmental impact of transportation on ____particularly concerns soil
erosion and soil contamination.
▸ Coastal transport facilities such as ports have significant impacts on soil erosion.
▸ Shipping activities are modifying the scale and scope of wave actions leading to damage in confined channels such as river banks.
▸ Highway construction or lessening surface grades for port and airport
developments have led to an important loss of fertile land.
▸ Soil contamination can occur through the use of toxic materials by the transport industry.
▸ Fuel and oil spills from motor vehicles are washed on roadsides and enter the soil.
▸ Chemicals used for the preservation of wooden railroad ties may enter the soil.
▸ Hazardous materials and heavy metals have been found in areas contiguous to railroads, ports, and airports.

Answer 54

SOIL QUALITY

Question 55

▸ The need for construction materials and the development of land-based
transportation has led to deforestation.
▸ Many transport routes have required draining land, thus reducing wetland areas and
driving-out water plant species.
▸ The need to maintain road and rail right-of-way or to stabilize slope along transport facilities has resulted in restricting the growth of certain plants or has produced changes in plants with the introduction of new species.
▸ Many animal species are becoming endangered as a result of changes in their natural habitats and reduction of ranges due to the fragmentation of their habitat by transportation infrastructures.

Answer 55

BIODIVERSITY

Question 56

▸ Transportation facilities have an impact on the urban landscape.
▸ The development of port and airport infrastructure is a significant feature of the urban and peri-urban built environment.
▸ Social and economic cohesion can be severed when new transport facilities such as elevated train and highway structures cut across an existing urban community.
▸ Arteries or transport terminals can define urban borders and produce segregation.
▸ Major transport facilities can affect the quality of urban life by creating physical barriers, increasing noise levels, generating odors, reducing urban aesthetics and affecting the built heritage.
▸ The expansion of logistics activities has also been an indirect factor of land take in suburban and periurban areas.
▸ The assessment of environmental externalities of transportation involves multiple causes, effects and consequences.

Answer 56

LANDTAKE

Question 57

▸ Significant impacts of transport on the environment, and thus, on people
▸ Increasing acceptance on the idea that transport modes should pay for the ensuing _____
▸ Realization of the need to provide better alternatives, walking, biking, increased efficiency of ____

Answer 57

environmental damage
public transport system

Question 58

Solving transport’s environmental problems therefore requires not just _____ in issues like ____ but also a clear understanding of the spatial and social implications of different strategies & an ability to connect general principles to the settlements and communities they affect.

Answer 58

technical acumen
road user pricing