Trade union and labour rights

Question 1

What were the main issues that unions and labour fought for during the period? (5)

Answer 1

1) Recognition of unions
2) Establishment of systems for mediation
3) The freedom of workers to withdraw their labour without fear of punishment.
4) Involvement of unions in negotiations over pay and working conditions
5) Right for unions to exist

Question 2

What progress had been made by he end of the period? (3)

Answer 2

1) Workers won the right to join a union.
2) Unions won the right to collective bargaining - this is the process whereby workers’ representatives join together and negotiate over issues such as pay.
3) Unions secured the right of workers to go on strike - however this was limited in practice due to non-strike clauses in workers’ contracts.

Question 3

What issues existed with unions and labour in 1865? (4)

Answer 3

1) Limited number of unions, representing only skilled workers.
2) Industrialisation led to growth in unskilled workers who had no representation or protection.
3) Poor and dangerous working conditions - workers who suffered industrial injuries received little support because it was seen as a risk the employee had to take.
4) Workers would be hired on a contractual rather than permanent basis, so that they could be laid off when it suited their employer.

Question 4

What were the two main industrial unions in the late nineteenth century?
How did membership increase between 1881 and 1886?
Why did it’s reputation collapse and what was the consequence of this?

Answer 4

1) The Knights of Labor (KOL)
2) American Federation of Labor (AFL)

Between 1881 and 1886, membership increased from 20,000 to 70,000.
Its reputation collapsed after the violence at the Haymarket affair and membership fell to around 10,000.

Question 5

Which major union was established in 1905?

Give two facts.

Answer 5

The Industrial Workers of the World - ‘Wobblies’

1) They were disliked by employers because of their militancy.
2) They had 100,000 members by 1923.

Question 6

Which famous strike occurred in 1892?

Give two facts.

Answer 6

The Homestead Strike of 1892

1) It virtually bankrupted the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel workers.
2) It resulted in a fall in membership from 24,000 in 1891 to 6,300 by 1909.

Question 7

Which famous strike occurred in 1894?
What did it achieve?
What were the main events?
What Act was passed in the aftermath of the strike?

Answer 7

The Pullman Strike of 1894
It emphasised unions struggle to gain recognition.
1) Initially the attorney general issued an injunction which prevented anyone from interfering with the movement of mail.
2) President Cleveland sent in 2000 federal troops to break the strike despite claiming it was only to ensure the movement of mail.
3) Troops fired at protestors and killed four people.

Omnibus Indictment Act - Prohibited strikers and workers from persuading others to strike.

Question 8

What progress had been made by WW1?

Give two positives and five negatives.

Answer 8

Positive:

1) Union membership had grown to over 2 million.
2) Unions had begun to put pressure on election candidates to support workers’ rights.

Negative:

1) Unions represented only 20% of the non-agricultural workforce.
2) Many industries such as car manufacturing did not have unions.
3) Many unions lacked legal recognition and therefore had little power over decisions.
4) Progress was limited to white, male, skilled workers.
5) Workers divisions such as ethnicity, gender and skill were exploited by employers.

Question 9

What impact did WWI have on trade union and labour rights? (6)

What happened after the war?

Answer 9

1) Increased demand for factory owners products led to the possibility of increased profits and in turn they were more conciliatory towards their workers.
2) To ensure production was maintained the government recognised and negotiated with unions through the National War Labor Board (NWLB).
3) The length of the working day was reduced to 8 hours, and the right of workers to join a union was guaranteed, but workers agreed to a no-strike policy.
4) 20% rise in real wages
5) Union membership rose by 2.3 million between 1916 and 1920.
6) Clayton Anti-trust Act 1914 - limited the use of injunctions against striking workers and allowed peaceful picketing, provided protestors did not damage property.

However, after the war employers were keen to reverse the progress that had been made, which led in 1919 to 4 million workers being involved in industrial action.

Question 10

Give four positives and two negatives of the boom of the 1920s.

Answer 10

Positives:

1) Rise in real wages and decline in unemployment.
2) Employees offered reduction in working hours, pensions, insurance, etc.
3) Low levels of unemployment forced employers to take conciliatory measures such as union recognition or welfare capitalism.
4) Rise in real wages - wages at the ford factory doubled to $5 dollars a week.

Negatives:

1) Welfare capitalism was in return for no-strike agreements and abandoning the right to negotiate wages.
2) Sometimes workers were forced to sign yellow-dog contracts, whereby they were not allowed to join unions.

Question 11

What was the impact of the great depression? (5)

Answer 11

1) Undid improvements in living standards experienced during the boom years.
2) Labour and unions rights suffered as employers were able to exploit many workers facing unemployment.
3) Police or strike breakers were called in to deal with strikes.
4) Union membership fell as inability to strike severely undermined the union and worker strength.
5) Unemployment rose from 3% in 1929 to 25% in 1933.

Question 12

What were the most important pieces of New Deal legislation? (3)

Answer 12

1) National Industry Recovery Act 1933
2) National Labor Relations Act/Wagner Act 1935
3) Fair Labor Standards Act 1939

Question 13

What was the impact of the National Industry Recovery Act 1933? (2)

What limitations were there? (2)

Answer 13

1) Encouraged firms to agree to codes of practice which dealt with improving hours, rates of pay and union rights.
2) Gave workers the legal right to join unions and take part in collective bargaining.

Limitations:

1) Not all employer signed the code, e.g. Henry Ford.
2) The supreme court declared the act unconstitutional which reversed many of the gains for workers.

Question 14

What were the impacts of the National Labor Relations Act/ Wagner Act of 1935? (6)

Answer 14

1) Established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) which negotiated on the behalf of workers and prevented companies from setting up their own unions.
2) Workers were given the right to join unions.
3) Union membership rose from 3.7 million in 1933 to 9 million by 1938.
4) Using spies against unions was banned.
5) Workers were given the right to elect their own representatives for collective bargaining.

Question 15

What was the impact of the Fair Labor Standards Act 1939?

Answer 15

It gave workers a minimum wage.

Question 16

How did union membership increase during the New Deal?

Answer 16

1930 - 3,401,000
1935 - 3,584,000
1940 - 8,717,000

Question 17

What are the limitations of the New Deal? (4)

Answer 17

1) Many unskilled workers did not experience the improvements and still lacked rights.
2) Those at the lower end of the pay scale, most in need of protection, did not receive it.
3) African American and Mexican immigrants were still vulnerable.
4) Women were still almost always paid less than men.

Question 18

What was the impact of WWII on trade union and labour rights? (4)

Answer 18

1) Wages increased by 70% during the war.
2) Fall in unemployment to the point where there was a virtual labour shortage.
3) 9 million union members in 1938 increased to almost 15 million by the end of the war.
4) First time that the balance of power had shifted in the favour of workers over their employers.

Question 19

What occurred in the post-war years to affect trade union and labour rights? (5)

Answer 19

1) 1946 - 4.5 million workers involved in industrial action.
2) Taft-Hardley Act of 1947 greatly reduced the power of unions.
3) In 1948, workers at general motors negotiated a pay agreement linked to the cost of living and a pension package.
4) Rise in the number of white-collar workers and fall in the number of blue-collar workers led to decline in union membership.
5) Workers were generally much better off and well treated by their employers, so they became less interested in union membership.

Question 20

What were the most important events of the 1960s in terms of trade union and labour rights? (7)

Answer 20

1) Equal Pay Act 1963 - equal pay for equal work amongst men and women.
2) Johnsons’ ‘Great Society Policy’ - aimed at helping workers living in poverty or near to the poverty line.
3) Civil Rights Act 1964 - outlawed discrimination based on race, creed, religion, sex or national origin.
4) Equal Opportunity Act 1964 - Increased training opportunities.
5) Age Discrimination Act of 1968 - protected those over 40.
6) Merger of the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organisation (AFL-CIO) in 1955 brought together 85% of union members - 16 million.
7) Union workers were paid 20% higher than non-union workers.

Question 21

Give two drawbacks of the 1960s.

How did the number of strikes taking place change between 1950 and 1965?

Answer 21

1) African Americans became worse off because of changes in industry - most jobs were going to skilled workers.
2) African Americans did not have access to the education necessary to equip them for skilled jobs.

1950 - 3,030,000
1965 - 1,545,000

Question 22

What was the impact of Cesar Chavez? (3)

What important piece of legislation first came about in California and in what year?

Answer 22

1) Founded the Agricultural Workers’ Organizing Committee and the National Farm Workers Association which joined and became the Farm Workers Union (UFW) in 1972.
2) Chavez adopted non-violence and turned the struggle of farm workers into a moral cause which won national sympathy.
3) Organised strikes and boycotts, including the Salad Bowl Strike which won higher wages for employers of lettuce and grape growers.

1975 - California Agricultural Labor Relations Act established the California Agricultural Labor Relations Board to oversee collective bargaining for farm workers.

Question 23

How did the number of strikes and workers involved change between 1970 and 1990?

What factors led to a fall in union membership and a fall in union power? (6)

Answer 23

1970 - 381 strikes, 2,468,000 workers involved.
1980 - 187 strikes, 795,000 workers involved.
1990 - 44 strikes, 185,000 workers involved.
1) Divisions and lack of support for PATCO strike.
2) Decline in size of factories made organisation a challenge.
3) Generous welfare packages discouraged union membership.
4) Increase in the number of white-collar and female workers who were less interested in joining unions.
5) Growth in non-unionised firms
6) NLRB less willing to defend union rights.

Question 24

By how much did union membership fall between 1970 and 1990?
What had been gained by 1992?
Drawbacks?

Answer 24

1970 - 19,381,000
1990 - 16,740,000
1) Workers had the right to join a union - although there were non-union firms.
2) Workers had the right to collective bargaining - although the threat of unemployment weakened their position.
3) Workers had the right to strike - although it was forbidden in government and many companies used no-strike clauses.
4) Position of female workers improved - although African American and immigrants workers were vulnerable.

Question 25

How did union membership change between 1900 and 1920?

Answer 25

1900 - 500,000 members

1920 - 5 million members

Question 26

Most influential Supreme Court Decisions.

Answer 26

1) Lochner v. New York 1905 - rejected the law that limited the working hours of a baker to 8 hours, deciding that the law was an unreasonable attempt to regulate the terms of employment.
2) Coppage v Kansas 1915 - allowed the use of yellow-dog contracts
3) Adkins v. Children’s Hospital 1923 - stated that the minimum wage violated the due process clause
4) Declared the NIRA unconstitutional

Question 27

What was the impact of President Roosevelt?

Impact of Kennedy and Johnson?

Answer 27

Much progress was achieved through the New deal legislation.

Kennedy’s ‘New Frontier’ and Johnson’s ‘Great Society’ led to the groundbreaking legislation of the 1960s.

Question 28

What was the impact of President Nixon?

Impact of carter? (2)

Answer 28

Nixon brought in the Occupation Safety and Health Act 1970 - aimed to provide a working environment free from hazards and insanitary conditions. The department of Labor set the standards which meant employers had little influence.

Carter:

1) Establishment of minimum wage.
2) Failure to reform the National Labor Relations Act

Question 29

What was the impact of president Regan?
What were his aims? (2)
What happened in the PATCO strike of 1981? (2)
What was the impact of the PATCO strike?

Answer 29

Aims:

1) He aimed to remove restrictive legislation which favoured workers.
2) He also wanted to privatise publicly owned business which was not in the best interest of workers.

1) The strike occurred because the government was unwilling to allow air traffic controllers to be paid more for working fewer hours.
2) Regan announced that if the workers did not return to work in 48 hours their contracts would be ended.

Impact:

1) Decline in strikes and union membership after the event.
2) Clear indication of government position over relations with unions.
3) Appointments to the Labor Relations Board were made by the president and he ensured that those appointed supported his views, so that any disputes that went before it were likely to favour the employer.