Native Americans

Question 1

How many independent tribes existed at the start of the nineteenth century?

What were the aims of the Native American Indians? (3)

What were the aims of the US government? (2)

Answer 1

At the start of the nineteenth century, 86 independent tribes had been identified.

Aims of NAI:

1) Self-determination and independence
2) Live according to tribal customs under their tribal leaders.
3) Rights to their own lands.

Aims of US govt:

1) Assimilate NAI - destroy their customs and culture.
2) Wanted NAI to become self-supporting.

Question 2

What were the characteristics of the NAI? (5)

Answer 2

1) Worshipped nature
2) Nomadic
3) Had their own tribal laws and government.
4) Had their own languages
5) Had their own culture and ceremonies.

Question 3

When were the Plains Wars, how did they come about?

Answer 3

The Plains Wars occurred during the years 1862-1868.
The wars erupted because troops which had been stationed on the Plains were withdrawn because of the civil war. They were replaced with volunteer soldiers that had very little interest in the NAI.
The government was also no longer providing food to the NAI because of the demands of the Civil War, and so driven by hunger, the tribes rose up against the US government in the Plains Wars.
Many Native Americans were killed including men, women and children.

Question 4

Name two massacres that occurred in the early part of the period and give details.

Answer 4

1) Sand Creek Massacre 1864
2) Massacre at Wounded Knee 1890 - cavalry killed over 100 NAI men, women and children, including babies and the elderly.

Question 5

Name four government land treaties between the government and the NAI, giving the year in which the treaties were made and the tribes that were involved.

Answer 5

1) 1851 - Fort Laramie Treaty - Arapaho, Cheyenne and Sioux
2) 1861 - Fort Wise Treaty - Arapaho and Cheyenne.
3) 1867 - Medicine Lodge Treaty, Comanche, Kiowa, Plains Apache
4) Fort Laramie Treaty - Arapaho, Lakota, Sioux

Question 6

In what four main ways did the US government attempt to assimilate the NAI?

Answer 6

1) Education
2) Conversion to Christianity
3) Turning NAI into farmers
4) Establishment of reservations

Question 7

What were reservations?

What were the main parts of reservation policy? (6)

Answer 7

These were lands designated by the US government for the NAI to occupy as part of the land treaties.
They were used throughout the 50s and 60s to bring about assimilation.
At first the reservation land was determined through treaties by the NAI and the government and later by congress.
Reservation policy prevented the NAI from moving freely and pursuing the diminished buffalo.
It allowed the government to destroy the NAI way of life as:
1) Polygamy had to be abandoned
2) Braves could no longer demonstrate their skills.
3) Herbal remedies were forbidden.
4) Tribal laws were abolished.
5) Communal living was ended.
6) Power of tribal chief ended.

Question 8

What major battle took place in 1876?

What was the effect of outcome of the battle?

Answer 8

The Battle of Little Bighorn 1876

The size of reservations was further reduced after the defeat of General Custer.

Question 9

What main problems did many NAI face on reservations? (6)

Answer 9

1) Much of the land was unsuitable for farming.
2) Dependence on government food supplies which often failed to arrive leading to starvation.
3) Many of the NAI found it humiliating to be reliant on the US government.
4) 1880s drought - crops died and cattle hit by disease.
5) Many NAI died from infectious diseases such as measles, while other died because they were unable to adjust to the conditions of the climate in area in which they had been moved to.
6) Alcohol addiction became a huge issue for the NAI.

Question 10

By how much did the Plains Indians population dwindle between 1860 and 1900?

Why were the NAI denied civil rights?

Answer 10

By 1900, only 100,000 of the original 240,000 Plains Indians in 1860 remained.

The NAI were denied civil rights as they were treated as ‘wards of the state’ and not citizens and taxpayers.

Question 11

What was the fate of the Navajo tribe?

Answer 11

The Navajo successfully adapted to new farming practices and built up large flocks of sheep and goats. They also increased the size of their reservation and their population rose from 8000 in 1868 to 22,000 in 1900.

Question 12

What major piece of legislation was passed in 1887?

Why was it introduced and what were the implications of the act? (4)

Answer 12

The Dawes Act 1887
By placing the NAI on reservations, the US government had ensured that tribal life would continue because by placing the NAI all in one place, it allowed tribal culture and customs to remain.

1) The act divided the reservations into plots which were given to the NAI and made them landowners and citizens.
2) This undermined their belief thad the land was a being that could not be owned.
3) However much of the land was sold to white settlers because the NAI struggled to farm it.
4) The act made men heads of the family which undermined the role of women, especially in matriarchal tribes such as the Iroquois and the Cherokee, where property belonged to women.

Question 13

Name the five civilised tribes.

What was special about the five civilised tribes?

Answer 13

1) Cherokee
2) Chickasaw
3) Choctaw
4) Creek
5) Seminole

These five tribes because of the success in adapting to their new conditions, were initially exempt from the Dawes Act of 1887.

Question 14

What major piece of legislation was introduced in 1898?

What were the consequences of the legislation? (2)

Answer 14

The Curtis Act of 1898, this ended the exemption of the five tribes from the Dawes act of 1887.

1) The tribes attempted to prevent this by proposing that their lands become the state of Sequoyah.
2) The NAI lost a further 2 millions acres of their land.

Question 15

Name the two major court cases in 1902 and 1902.

What were the implications of these cases? (2)

Answer 15

1902 - Cherokee nation v. Hitchcock
1903 - Lone wolf v. Hitchcock

1) Lone wolf v. Hitchcock gave the government the right to revoke all treaties with the NAI and stated that they were not citizens of the state and therefore had no rights.
2) The Native Americans had lost their identity and pride, as they now often depended on the government for food.

Question 16

Which major piece of legislation was introduced in 1924?

What impact did this have on the NAI?

Answer 16

The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924

1) This extended the right to vote to the NAI, but most did not want the right to vote or citizenship because they had achieved this through the Dawes Act.
2) The extension of citizenship to NAI living on reservations was not designed to increase their political involvement, but to increase the speed with which they were assimilated.

Question 17

What was the Meriam Report of 1928?

Answer 17

This report by reformers, anthropologists and social scientists, concluded that Native American schools were underfunded and understaffed.
It condemned the allotment policy and noted that the Native Americans were the most impoverished people in the country.

Question 18

What was the most important piece of New Deal legislation for the Native Americans?
Who was the main driving force behind the act?
What were the positive implications of the act for the NAI? (5)
Limitations (2)

Answer 18

The most important act of this period for the NAI was the Wheeler-Howard or Indian Reorganisation Act of 1934.
This was the first act to preserve their culture and owed much to the work of John Collier.
The act gave NAI:
1) The right to practise their religion.
2) The right to undertake ceremonial dances and celebrations.
3) The ability to prevent the sale of their lands to individuals.
4) The extension of political rights to women.
5) It also improved conditions in schools and hospitals.

Limitations:

1) The Act encouraged women to take up education and ended allotment policy but not assimilation.
2) Tribes were still not independent and funding intended to improve their lives was later used for the Second World War effort instead.

Question 19

What was termination? (5)

When was it introduced?

Answer 19

The termination policy was introduced in 1953 to speed up assimilation.

1) Native Americans lost their status as ‘Wards of the State’, instead of the reservation system, they would be encouraged to move to the cities where there were jobs.
2) Those who did move to cities found that they were living in the worst accommodation and working in poorly paid jobs.
3) 50% of NAI returned to the reservations where conditions had worsened.
4) The unemployment rate amongst NAI was 18% and the their life expectancy was 44 years which was 20 years below the national average.
5) Termination also ended the recognition of NAI tribes and any remaining land treaties and instead treated them as independent and self-supporting.

Question 20

How did the period after the 1960s and the ending of assimilation help the NAI?

Answer 20

The ending of asimilation may also have helped the NAI population which rose from 800,000 in 1970 to 1.7 million in 1990.

Question 21

What was the reality for the NAI that moved to urban areas as part of the policy of termination? (5)

Answer 21

1) They were living in the worst accommodation and if they were lucky enough to find jobs, they were very poorly paid.
2) Literacy rates remained low and disease high.
3) 25% were poor and living in accommodation which was incapable of supporting extended family.
4) Many who moved to urban areas did not settle as the lifestyle was alien to their culture.
5) Those who did remain in cities often grouped together in ghettos, which led to increased unity.

Question 22

What came out of the period between 1969-92?

Answer 22

1) NAI lands were returned and some tribes that had lost their status regained recognition and rights while educational opportunities increased.
2) Restoration of land was slow and in some cases the NAI were granted compensation rather than a return of their lands. - Compensation was considerable, but many of the tribes would have preferred their lands.
3) The NAI gained respect for their religious traditions and were allowed to worship freely - 30 states passed laws to protect burial grounds and remains.
4) Tribes were able to negotiate rights for health, education and other social services.

Question 23

What progress had been made by the end of the period?

Three negatives and two positives.

Answer 23

Negatives:
1) Education and employment levels still low.
2) Much of the land is disputed.
3) Still remain the poorest group in society.
Positives:
1) Policy of assimilation ended.
2) Considerable progress towards self-determination.

Question 24

For what main reasons did federal government hinder the progress of Native American rights? (4)

Answer 24

1) The belief in manifest destiny and the encouragement of settlement on the Plains - Homestead Act 1862.
2) Allotment policy was seen as helping NAI but it went against their tribal way of life and ignored their desire for self-determination.
3) Reservation policy allowed the government to control the NAI and the policy of allotment allowed forestry and mining companies access to more and more NAI land.
4) Whenever the government faced economic problems such as the two world wars - funds were redirected from NAI.

Question 25

How did Johnson refer to the Native Americans and how did the programme he begun and Nixon continued impact the NAI? (3)

Answer 25

Johnson referred to the Native Americans as the ‘Forgotten Americans’.

1) The programme improved education with the Indian Education Act of 1972.
2) Some Native American nations or tribes regained their native sovereignty and self-determination.
3) Some lost lands were returned to the Makah, Taos Pueblo and Yakama tribes.

Question 26

What important legislation was brought in under Ford and Carter?

Answer 26

Under Ford:
The Indian Self-determination and Education Assistance Act 1975.
Under Carter:
Native American Religious Freedom Act, 1975
Indian Child Welfare Act, 1978

Question 27

As the supreme court began to support the development of NAI rights towards the end of the period, name the five most important cases.

Answer 27

1) Oneida v. Oneida and Madison Counties 1974 - the Oneida tribe sued successfully for the return of their lands.
2) Fisher v. Montana 1976 - this gave tribal courts the rights to decide on adoption and therefore recognised tribal courts.
3) Sioux v. United States 1980 - the Sioux won compensation for the loss of lands but rejected it, arguing instead for the return of their lands.
4) Seminole tribe v. Butterworth 1982 - the Seminole were allowed to establish gambling premises on their land even though it went against state law.
5) Charrier v. Bell 1986 - remains dug from burial gorunds were determined to belong to the Native Americans.

Question 28

What was the impact of the Second World War on Native American pressure groups?

Answer 28

1) The Second World War witnessed the establishment of the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) - which brought together a number of tribes.
2) The experiences of many who fought in the war made them aware of both racism and discrimination.
3) The NCAI put pressure on the government to improve their rights and the Indian Claims Commission was established.

Question 29

What were the most important actions of the Native Americans towards the end of the period in terms of progressing their rights? (8)

Answer 29

1) Established a group to patrol the streets and monitor police activity.
2) Staged a fish-in in Washington State to try to uphold treaty rights which the Supreme Court did not protect.
3) Published literature on their history and culture to raise awareness.
4) Pursued cases in the Supreme Court to recover tribal lands.
5) Besieged Alcatraz, led by Richard Oakes, occupying the island and demanding its return, which gained worldwide media coverage.
6) Occupied Mount Rushmore, the sacred burial site of the Sioux.
7) Took over the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1972 - this led to violence and they were evicted.
8) Occupied Wounded Knee where the sioux had been massacred in 1890.

Question 30

Which two important NAI pressure groups were formed in the 1960s?

Answer 30

1) National Indian Youth Council 1961

2) Red Power leading to the formation of the American Indian Movement (AIM) in 1968.