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Introduction To Forensic Science > Toxicology And Illicit Drug Confirmation > Flashcards

Toxicology And Illicit Drug Confirmation Flashcards

1
Q

What is toxicology ?

A

Examination of biological samples for the presence of drugs

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2
Q

What is toxicology divided into ?

A

Criminal toxicology and road traffic toxicology

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3
Q

What is a receptor ?

A

A molecule on the cell membrane that responds only to specific hormones, antigens or drugs

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4
Q

What is an agonist ?

A

An agonist is a drug that binds to and fully activates a receptor

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5
Q

What is an antagonist ?

A

An antagonist is a drug that binds to and inhibits receptor activity

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6
Q

What is a partial agonist ?

A

A partial agonist binds to a receptor weakly, it does not elicit a full effect and is blocking the receptor from being activated fully by an agonist thus has antagonist like effects

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7
Q

How does GABA work ?

A

Causing membrane depolarisation by increasing the flow of negative CI ions across the membrane

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8
Q

What activates GABA receptors ?

A

GABA or numerous drugs

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9
Q

How does glutamate work ?

A

Increases the frequency of NA+ and CA+ ions across the membrane

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10
Q

What is dopamine associated with ?

A

Pleasure and addiction

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11
Q

What is the substance in alcohol that makes it alcohol ?

A

Ethanol

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12
Q

What are the different types of alcohol of forensic interest ?

A

-methanol
-iso-propanol
-ethylene glycol

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13
Q

What is the mechanism of alcohol ?

A

Alcohol binds to alpha sub unit of GABA receptor and increases the likelihood and potency of the GABA ligand

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14
Q

How does memory loss occur ?

A

Inhibition of GABA

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15
Q

Where is alcohol absorbed from ?

A

Duodenum

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16
Q

How much alcohol enters the bloodstream from the stomach ?

A

20%

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17
Q

Why does consumption of food slow down absorption of alcohol ?

A

Delays gastric emptying

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18
Q

What is the fatal level of alcohol ?

A

> 400mg

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19
Q

What does CNS depressants and the use of alcohol cause ?

A

Synergistic effect

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20
Q

Why is heroin never found in toxicology results when tested for ?

A

Metabolises fast

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21
Q

When can you state that it’s a heroin overdose ?

A

If 6-MAM is present in results

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22
Q

What is the mechanism of heroin ?

A
  1. Morphine binds to opiate receptors
  2. Morphine inhibits GABA release
  3. Dopamine release no longer inhibited
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23
Q

What is speedballing ?

A

Mixing heroin and cocaine and taken by injection

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24
Q

What two ways does Heroin OD typically occur ?

A

-prolonged absence
-relapse

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25
Q

What is the mechanism for cocaine ?

A

-dopamine retake blocked by cocaine
-build up of dopamine in synaptic cleft
-effects are intense and short lived

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26
Q

What do toxicology tests for cocaine show ?

A

Benzoylecgonine

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27
Q

What is the psychoactive and toxic element of cocaine ?

A

Cocaethylene

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28
Q

What is cocaine OD typically related to ?

A

-cardiovascular complications
-binge use

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29
Q

What is cocaine OD accompanied by ?

A

-convulsions
-foaming of the mouth
-loss of consciousness

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30
Q

What is the base form of cocaine ?

A

Crack

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31
Q

How are crack rocks formed ?

A

-baking soda
-heated
-cooled quickly

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32
Q

In what form is cocaine more addictive ?

A

when smoked

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33
Q

What i8s the mechanism for benzodiazepines ?

A

-bind to gamma sub unit on GABA receptor

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34
Q

What is doctor shopping ?

A

visiting multiple physicians to obtain multiple prescriptions

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35
Q

What affect does ecstasy (MDMA) ?

A

Serotonin shock syndrome (heatstroke)
- lowers the bodies ability to regulate body temperature

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36
Q

what is the mechanism for MDMA ?

A

-blocks the reuptake pump for serotonin/ dopamine
-levels increase
-mental relaxation/ euphoria

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37
Q

How long can MDMA last for ?

A

4-8 hours

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38
Q

What conditions do amphetamines have use for ?

A

Narcolepsy and ADHD

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39
Q

How are amphetamines typically taken ?

A

Snorted or mixed with a drink- foul tasting

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40
Q

What are common side effects of methamphetamines ?

A

Nausea, panic attacks, compulsive repetitive behaviour and jaw clenching

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41
Q

What is road traffic toxicology ?

A

A branch of toxicology that focuses exclusively on drink or drug impairment when in control of motorised transport

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42
Q

What does road traffic toxicology typically involved ?

A

Motorists who’s driving has been adversely affected by drink or drugs

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43
Q

What officers might road traffic toxicology include ?

A

-Royal Navy
-airline pilots

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44
Q

What is Henry’s Law ?

A

Is a gas law that states that the amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is directly proportional at equilibrium to its partial pressure above liquid

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45
Q

What is the Licensing Act of 1872

A

Made it an offence to be ‘drunk while in charge on the highway or other public places of any carriage, horse, cattle or steam engine’

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46
Q

What happened in 1927 ?

A

Licensing act was extended to cover ‘any mechanically propelled vehicle’

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47
Q

What was published in 1927 by the BMA ?

A

‘Tests of drunkenness’

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48
Q

What is the Road Safety Act 1967 ?

A

Introduced the present 80mg% and 107mg% blood and urine alcohol limit (and overall 70mph speed limit)

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49
Q

What is the grand rapids study ?

A

Grand rapids is a town in Michigan where the first large scale epidemiological study was carried out.

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50
Q

What was the method for the grand rapids study ?

A

Breath samples were taken from nearly 6,000 drivers in accidents and about 7,600 drivers not in accidents

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51
Q

What was derived from the results of the grand rapids study ?

A

-Grand rapids curve
-related blood alcohol levels to the increased probability of being involved in an accident

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52
Q

What were the results of the grand rapids study ?

A
  • BAC above 40-50mg you are at an increased risk of being involved in an accident
    -legal limit 80mg increased risk of about 400%
  • at 50mg the increased risk becomes significant
    -at 100mg the increased risk becomes 600%
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53
Q

What are the effects of alcohol on driving ?

A
  • impairs reaction time
    -can induce drowsiness and fatigue (higher doses)
    -can induce overconfidence and recklessness
    -impairs motor coordination and impairs steering and tracking
    -drivers often overcompensate by excess speed reduction
    -unable to respond to challenges
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54
Q

What plant is cannabis derived from ?

A

Cannabis sativa

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55
Q

What is the main active ingredient in cannabis ?

A

Delta-9 tetrahydro-cannabinol (THC)

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56
Q

What are the three main forms of cannabis ?

A

-marijuana
-hashish
-hash oil

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57
Q

What form of cannabis is the least potent ?

A

Marijuana

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58
Q

What form is marijuana taken ?

A

Smoked or taken as edibles

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59
Q

What is marijuana made from ?

A

Dried leaves and flowers from the cannabis plant

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60
Q

What is hashish made from ?

A

Resin (a secreted gum) of the cannabis plant

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61
Q

How is hashish taken ?

A

Dried and pressed into blocks and smoked or can be added to food and eaten

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62
Q

What is the most potent form of cannabis ?

A

Hash oil

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63
Q

Where is hash oil obtained from ?

A

Thick oil obtained from hashish

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64
Q

How is hash oil taken ?

A

Smoked

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65
Q

How is cannabis smoked ?

A

-hand-rolled cigarettes
-special water pipes (bongs)

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66
Q

What are the effects of cannabinoids on the body ?

A
  • feeling of well-being, talkativeness
    -drowsiness
    -loss of inhibition
    -decreased nausea
    -increased appetite
    -loss of co-ordination (bloodshot eyes)
    -dryness of the eyes, mouth and throat
    -anxiety and paranoia
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67
Q

What is dabbing or budding ?

A

-The use of butane or carbon dioxide to extract high purity THC from cannabis resin
- The extract is typically a sticky wax oil that can be 80-90x the potency of cannabis

68
Q

What long term effects can cannabinoids have ?

A

-not physiologically addictive
-habitual addiction
-effects learning and motivation
-worsen underlying mental health issues

69
Q

How does cannabis work ?

A
  • Cannabinoids
    -endocannibinoid receptors
    -The endocannabinoid system is involved in regulating a variety of physiological processes
70
Q

What are the effects of cannabinoids on driving ?

A

-reduced coordination
-slower reaction times
-slower information processing
-confusion
-changes in vision, hearing and time and space perception
-cannabis has a slow elimination rate
-long term users are especially prone to a ‘baseline high’
-the effects of cannabis on driving are not noticeable until a driver is challenged
-5ng is the same risk as 150mg BAC

71
Q

What did the government do in 2015 regarding drugs ?

A

Introduced fixed limits for drug driving

72
Q

What is the THC fixed limits ?

73
Q

What is the benzoylecgonine fixed limits ?

74
Q

What is the cocaine fixed limit ?

75
Q

What is the 6-AM fixed limit ?

76
Q

What is the amphetamine fixed limit ?

77
Q

What is the LSD fixed limit ?

78
Q

What is the MDMA fixed limit ?

79
Q

What is the ketamine fixed limit ?

80
Q

What is the methylamphetamine fixed limit ?

81
Q

What is the morphine fixed limit ?

82
Q

What is the methadone fixed limit ?

83
Q

What are the different impairment tests ?

A

-pupillary examination
-modified Romberg balance test
-walk and turn test
-one leg stand test
-finger and nose test

84
Q

Where are preliminary impairment tests conducted ?

A

Police station

85
Q

What are problems with the impairment tests ?

A

-subjective (no scoring system, dependent on police officer)
-movements are unnatural
-hard to pass sober
-Don’t take into account emotional state/ shock

86
Q

What is road traffic toxicology typically divided into ?

A

-drink driving
-drug driving

87
Q

What is a section 4 of the RTA ?

A

Impairment based legislation, there is no limit, once a drug is found in your system then impairment must be proved

88
Q

What is section 5A of the RTA ?

A

Drug limit legislation

89
Q

What is the uncertainty of BAC ?

90
Q

What are some of the main issues with psychoactive substances ?

A
  • unknown metabolic rate and effect
    -hard to detect
    -cheaper to source
91
Q

What are designer drugs ?

A

Chemical variants of controlled substances that have a similar effect to the controlled substance

92
Q

Where could psychoactive drugs be bought ?

93
Q

What were psychoactive substances in headshops often should as ?

A

-bath salts
-herbal scents
-research chemicals

94
Q

What loop holes were used in headshops, meaning drugs could be sold legally ?

A

Magic mushrooms aren’t psychoactive when wet

95
Q

How are illegal drugs turned into legal drugs ?

A

Small easy to make synthesis changes

96
Q

What is the price of spice ?

A

3 grams in foil sachet about £20

97
Q

Who was spice distributed by ?

A

‘Psyche Deli’- then based in London

98
Q

What is spice declared as ?

A

Mixture of the usual herbal high materials that are sprayed with chemicals

99
Q

What is the spice range ?

A

-spice diamond
-spice gold
-spice silver

100
Q

What did reports on spice say about the effects reported by users ?

A

-naive users
-placebo effect
-psychosomatic effect

101
Q

What was identified in 2008 (spice) ?

A

JWH-018 the major component of spice, which a synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist

102
Q

Why were forensic scientist’s wrong about spice ?

A

Mass spectrometry didn’t know what it was looking for

103
Q

What happened when researchers were looking for cannabinoids for medical use ?

A

They discovered materials that make users really high and weren’t useable in medical applications

104
Q

Why is it argued in some cases whether drugs were the cause of death ?

A

Actions might not have happened if the individual wasn’t under the influence

105
Q

What are the withdrawal symptoms of spice ?

A

Headaches, anxiety, low mood, difficulty concentrating and irritability

106
Q

What is the difference between spice and cannabis ?

A
  • JWH-018 doesn’t accumulate in peripheral tissues or albumin deposits, whereas THC accumulates in tissues for weeks
  • No time delay in absorption, No metabolic break down product, whereas THC has a 10-15 min delay following inhalation
    -spice appears to cause withdrawal symptoms whereas THC doesn’t cause significant withdrawal or hallucinogenic episodes
107
Q

What has the UK drafted to control spice products ?

A

Five generic controls on known ‘families’ of materials in spice

108
Q

What is the problem with the UK controls drafted for spice ?

A

Suppliers rapidly switch to ‘second generation materials outside the control materials which are even more potent

109
Q

What did research in 1973 show ?

A

Effects of benzylpiperazines (BZP) similar to amphetamines

110
Q

Where did BZP appear ?

A

In New Zealand as ingredients of ‘party pills’

111
Q

How do BZP’s work ?

A

Affect serotonin release and uptake
-mild stimulant and some hallucinogenic effects

112
Q

What is mephedrone structurally similar to ?

A

Amphetamine

113
Q

What does mephedrone cause ?

A

Euphoria and feelings of pleasure

114
Q

Where is mephedrone popular ?

A

-raves
-working professionals
-same sex drug users

115
Q

How does mephedrone work ?

A

Acts as both serotonin agonist and blocks the reuptake of serotonin and dopamine

116
Q

What is the legal status of mephedrone ?

A

Officially banned as register as a Class B drug in 2010

117
Q

Why have CNS depressants not been touched by designer drugs ?

A

The ease of access, cost and purity means that there was no real gap in the market

118
Q

What is the most notorious CNS depressant ?

A

Etizolam, an unclassified benzodiazepine that is 10x the strength of Valium

119
Q

What are the challenges in forensic science of designer drugs ?

A

Typical confirmatory analysis (GC-MS and LC-MS) identify compounds by using an analytical library
-if the compounds is not contained in that library you will not be able to detect it

120
Q

What is the analogue approach ?

A
  • controlled substance analogue
    -similar structure, similar effect and intended for human use
    -has to be argued in court
121
Q

What is the neurochemical approach ?

A

-classify by the effects on brain, not by chemical structure

122
Q

What is a blanket ban ?

A

General prohibition on sales- all psychoactive materials banned from sale

123
Q

What are the exemptions in the blanket ban ?

A

Medicines, alcohol, nicotine, caffeine and foods

124
Q

What country is believed to be the main source of NPS ?

125
Q

What is chinas view on NPS ?

A

‘We don’t have an NPS problem in china, our producers don’t know that their product is misused’

126
Q

What is the world anti-doping agency ?

A

Set up WADA to have equal representation from the Olympic movement and public authorities

127
Q

What does WADA do ?

A

-Conduct unannounced out of competition doping control
-Developing the world anti-doping code
-funding scientific research to develop new detection methods

128
Q

What is the Uk branch of WADA ?

A

UKAD set up in 2009

129
Q

What is the definition of doping ?

A

The use of expedient (substance or method) which is potentially harmful to athletes health and/or capable of enhancing their performance

130
Q

What does doping include the attempt of ?

A

Masking the use of suspected drugs or attempts to avoid/ distrust testing

131
Q

What drugs are used in shooting ?

A

Beta blockers

132
Q

What effects do steroids have on?

A

Androgenic effects that increases bodily hair growth, deepening of voice, skin and sex organ changes

133
Q

What is the purpose of steroids ?

A

Increases muscle synthesis, increases fat loss, decreases fatigue and improves recovery

134
Q

What is the major goal of all steroids ?

A

To directly or indirectly increase testosterone production

135
Q

What side effects do steroids have ?

A
  • liver cirrhosis
    -natural testosterone production stops
136
Q

How do steroids work ?

A

-Testosterone binds to Androgen receptor (AR).
-AR receptor is activated (5a reductase/ DHT) phosphorylation and dimerization)
-AR translocate to the nucleus where it activates transcription factors and increase protein synthesis and muscle production

137
Q

How are steroids tested ?

A

First using radioimmunassay, now using mass spectrometry

138
Q

What is relied on for the testing of steroids ?

A

The ratio of epitestosterone to testosterone to find steroid abuse. (4:1 testosterone to epitestosterone)

139
Q

What did BALCO develop ?

A

An undetectable performance enhancing drug- the ‘cream’ and the ‘clear’

140
Q

What was the cream and the clear ?

A
  • Tetrahydrogestine is a androgen agonists that promotes muscle production very similar to DHT
  • The ‘cream’ was a topical mixture of testosterone and epitestosterone that would allow users to sue up to a 100mg a day without detection
141
Q

How can steroids be taken ?

A

Taken orally or injected

142
Q

When does doping occur ?

A

-doesn’t occur at the event
-done out of competition
-alt helmets use a steroid cycle and cycle off steroids as competition approaches

143
Q

What did WADA impose to regulate steroid cycling ?

A

A whereabouts system and a three strike missed test

144
Q

What is the Human growth hormone ?

A

A naturally occurring hormone, that is typically produced in teenagers and early adolescents

145
Q

How is HGH medically used ?

A

To treat children with thyroid/ stunted growth

146
Q

What are the side effects of using HGH ?

A

-acromegaly
-swelling of hands and feet
-dentition problems

147
Q

What is blood doping ?

A

Extraction, storage and re-injection of blood

148
Q

Why do athletes use blood transfusions ?

A

boost red blood cells that aren’t depleted ( have O2)

149
Q

What is the mechanism of blood doping ?

A

-EPO is produced in the kidney and binds to active EPOR sites on the erythroid progenitor.
-The resultant JAK and STAT activation in turn activates cell proliferation and survival.

150
Q

What is EPO ?

A

A naturally occurring hormone produced by the kidneys that elevates RBC production

151
Q

What was EPO originally used for ?

A

Medical treatment of anaemia in kidney disease and cancer patients

152
Q

What sport required the use of EPO ?

153
Q

What did numerous riders die from the use of EPO ?

A

Myocardial infraction and ischaemia

154
Q

What was introduced to try and control the abuse of EPO ?

A

A 50% haemocrit level

155
Q

What was the problem with the haemocrit level for EPO ?

A

By injecting a bag of saline it would reduce the level of red blood cells

156
Q

What are the two types of blood transfusion ?

A

Autologous or homologous

157
Q

What is the biological passport for blood doping ?

A

Works by measuring reticulocytes and haemoglobin ratio

158
Q

What would happen when taking EPO according to the biological passport ?

A

Lead to an increase in reticulocytes

159
Q

What is a therapeutic use exemption ?

A

A special dispensation that allows an athlete to use a medicinal product without the risk of ban

160
Q

What drugs are typically allowed for a TUE ?

A

Corticosteroids anti-congestants or painkillers

161
Q

What is the problem with TUE ?

A

The use of these drugs especially at elevated doses can infer a competitive advantage

162
Q

What is the most commonly reported prohibited substance to IOC laboratory’s ?

A

Salbutamol

163
Q

What does dop mean ?

A

A narcotic potion for racehorses to reduce their performance

164
Q

Why is doping tested in racehorses ?

A
  • to ensure that outcomes are manipulated illegally
  • to safeguard the welfare of animals
    -stud and animal sales issue
165
Q

How are samples taken for racehorses to test for doping ?

A

There is no predictable pattern, but liable selection can include:
-winners
-much better performers than expected
-much worse performers than expected

166
Q

How are samples taken from the horse ?

A

-escorted to sampling unit
-analysed by immunoassay and by GC-MS
-any positive results are reported to the authorities

Introduction To Forensic Science (5 decks)

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