Tourism

Question 1

1. The Changing Nature of Tourism

Answer 1

Student should be able to:

(i) explain how mass tourism has developed into a global industry through developments in transport, increase in disposable incomes, package holidays and internet access

(ii) explain how tourism has brought positive social and economic impacts

(iii) explain how tourist demands and tourist resorts change over time - Pleasure
Periphery and the Butler Model

Question 2

Tourism

Answer 2

~Toursim~
Tourism refers to travel for pleasure and the promotion and provision of services for tourists.

~Scale~
Tourism operates at a local, regional and international scale.

~Internation Tourists~
International tourists are referred to as arrivals or incoming tourists in their destination country and as outbound tourists from their home country.

~Duration of Stay~
The duration of tourism visits ranges from one day, sometimes referred to as day trippers, to a maximum of one year, with the majority lasting 7-14 days.

~Types~
There are many types of tourism including recreation, visiting friends and relatives (VFR), religious pilgrimages, health, sport and business.

~Recreation~
Recreation is the main underlying reason for increases in tourism, accounting for over 50% of international tourism. Air and road transport are the main forms of transport used.

~Modern Tourism~
Modern tourism began in the nineteenth century but remained the privilege of the wealthy until the 1960s. Since then, major social and economic changes occurred which enabled more people to avail of travel for leisure and many of these were international tourists.

In 1950 there were approximately 25 million international tourists, rising gradually to 80 million in 1960. The growth in numbers has increased since 1960, with almost
1.2 billion tourist arrivals in 2015. This figure is predicted to continue to grow, reaching 1.8 billion by 2030. Figure D3 shows that the rate of growth has not been even over time. The increase in the 1960s marked the beginning of mass tourism.

~Mass Tourism~
Mass tourism refers to large numbers of people visiting holiday destinations and visits usually confined to a few weeks in a year.

~Destination Popularity~
More than half of the 2015 arrivals went to a European destination. A further 16% went to North America. This emphasises the point that tourism is still dominated by MEDCs due to their greater levels of wealth and development.
However, this pattern is changing and, increasingly, the LEDCs are developing their tourism potential. Since the 1990s, newly emerging tourist destinations in Africa, Asia/Pacific and the Middle East have all experienced rapid growth rates in the number of tourist arrivals.

Question 3

Inbound Tourism by Purpose of Visit

Answer 3

Question 4

Inbound Tourism by Mode of Transport - 2015

Answer 4

Question 5

International Tourist Arrivals - 2015

Answer 5

Question 6

Patterns and Trends in International Tourism

Answer 6

The trends displayed show that mass tourism has now become a global industry. There are many reasons for this, including:

~Development in Transport~
Efficient and affordable transportation is an essential requirement for mass tourism.
Throughout the nineteenth century tourists largely relied on rail and sea transport. These methods of transport confined most tourists to local locations. In Northern Ireland, tourist resorts such as Bangor and Newcastle, Co Down, were linked by rail to Belfast. The developments in affordable air travel from the 1960s contributed to mass tourism in three ways.

1. The increase in affordable air travel meant many more people from a wider socio-economic base could travel abroad

2. Mass tourism is concentrated on well developed and accessible destinations. The focus of these foreign trips was determined by the increased availability of airport facilities abroad.

3. The introduction of chartered flights associated with package holidays had a key role in providing affordable air travel and led to an increase in the numbers of international holidays. As stated earlier, the wealthier regions such as Europe and America together receive over 60% of all international tourists, in contrast to Africa which receives only 5%

In the UK these developments in air travel coincided with increased disposable income and leisure time. As a result, international trips from the UK more than doubled in the 1960s and 1970s. The main destinations included long haul flights to North America, encouraged by the opening of Disney World in Florida
(1971), and increasingly to the Mediterranean seaside resorts in Spain.

The development of regional airports (such as Luton, Stansted, Belfast International and George Best Belfast City Airport) and budget airlines (such as Ryanair and EasyJet) offering cheap flights to popular tourist destinations brought about further increases in the numbers of international trips. For UK residents, visits abroad increased from 31.2 million in 1990 to 53.9 million in 1999, a 73% increase. Data from the Civil Aviation Authority shows that passenger traffic at regional airports doubled from 47 million passengers in 1995 to 95 million in 2005.

Other forms of transport have contributed to increased foreign travel from the UK. Britain has several well developed ferry routes which provide easy access to continental Europe. The Channels unrebuits opened in 1994, provided an alternative form of transport to Europe for UK tourists. In its first full year of operation, the tunnel transported 1.8 million overseas residents home following a visit to the UK and 19 million UK residents back to the UK. By the end of the decade, nearly 9 million vists were completed through the tunnel, with the majority being by UK residents.

~An Increase in Disposable Income~
Holidays are an expensive luxury. In 2016, a two week stay at a budget hotel in Spain for a UK family of four cost, on average, £4000, with additional spending required to cover living costs at the destination.

In order to afford such a holiday, families need to have his amount of money as surplus to their everyday needs. This surplus is referred to as disposable income. In the UK, disposable income is defined as income remaining after taxation and national insurance contributions have been deducted from a worker’s wages. Income is wages earned plus any profits from investments, savings or private pensions. Apart from fluctuations during periods of economic recession in the 1990s and 2008-2013, mean disposable income has more than doubled from 1977 levels. This means that families can better afford luxury items such as holidays. Credit card payments became increasingly popular from the late 1970s. They were seen as an easy way of obtaining a short term loan and boosted holiday sales. In addition, workers now have greatly improved working conditions. Government legislation guarantees workers paid holiday time off work and this has enabled most workers to have at least one annual break away from home. Higher income groups are able to afford several holidays away from home each year.

~Package Holiday~
Package holidays ofter a complete holiday deal including transport, accommodation and
recreational activities organised by a tour operator and sold on the high street by a trave agent. In the UK in the late 1940s and 50s, a number of affordable domestic package holidays were provided by companies such as Butlins but it was the package holidays to the Mediterranean coastal resorts from the 1960s that became a key driving force of mass tourism. The introduction of the package holiday had a very significant impact on international tourism. Package holidays remove many of the obstacles to international tourism, such as language barriers, they provide an ‘all in’ deal for tourists, wherebv a tourism, such as language barriers. They provide an ‘all in’ deal for tourists, whereby a travel company arranges all aspects of the holiday from flights, accommodation, transport to and from the holiday airport, and offer tours and activities to the tourist.

Package holidays can be traced back to Thomas Cook, who organised what is considered to be the first package holiday from Leicester to Loughborough in 1841.
Several years later he organised the first international package deal to Europe. The Thomas Cook organisation is one of the world’s leading tour operators. In 2015, the company employed approximately 22,000 people in 17 countries, had over 20 million customers, a fleet of aircraft and a net income of E19 million. In the pre-Internet era, four companies supplying these packages were the main source of foreign holidays.
Travel agents and tour companies were able to offer holidays at competitive prices well within the reach of many. In the 1990s, 56% of all foreign holidays were purchased as a package deal but since then there has been an increase in alternative ways of booking holidays through the use of the Internet.

~Internet Access~
The digital revolution in marketing through the Internet has had an important impact on tourism. In the UK, 89% of the population have Internet availability and nearly everyone has access to a computer, tablet or smart phone. According to figures released by the Association of British Travel Agents (ABTA), 76% of all holidays in 2016 were booked online. Through the use of online search engines (such as Trivago) and price comparison websites (such as Travel Supermarket), holidays become personalised to an individual’s needs and preferences at the most competitive price.

Question 7

Positive Social and Economic Impacts of Tourism

Answer 7

Tourism is one of the world’s most successful and resilient economic sectors.

Since 1950, the number of international tourists has increased from 25 million to almost 1.2 billion in 2015. In the same period, international tourism receipts (money earned from tourism) increased from USS2 billion to USS1260 billion. In 2016, one in ten jobs globally was derived from tourism and in terms of export value, tourism ranked third after fuels and chemicals. Furthermore, as a result of improvements in transport, tourism is now operating in an increasing number of destinations in Africa and Asia. However, the benefits of tourism are not spread evenly across the world.

America and Europe receive 60% of the total international tourism receipts while Africa receives only 3% (Figure D8). The United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) views tourism as an important component of economic and social development, especially in LEDCs and tourism is included in three of the Global Goals for Sustainable Development, launched in 2015, but can contribute to all 17 goals.

~Social Impacts~
The receipts from tourism create the potential for significant social impacts for the host country, provided the money remains in the country and is not leaked’ or taken back to foreign tour companies. These benefits can be categorised as indirect and direct.

Indirect benefits are those improvements designed for tourists but which also impact on local society. Examples of indirect benefits are improvements in **basic infrastructure++, including the supply of electricity, piped water and efficient sewage systems, which are installed to meet tourist demands but also benefit the local people. Similarly, improved transportation, such as road, rail and airport facilities, and an increase in service provision, such as shops and recreational amenities, enhance the quality of life of all.

Direct benefits include education and health programmes funded by tourism receipts, especially in poorer destinations. The Global Goals for Sustainable Development programme places great emphasis on the role that tourism has in delivering this aspect of social development. The UN has published a document outlining ways in which tourism can be delivered through each of the 17 goals. Programmes to provide education and health care systems are among the most obvious means of delivering social improvement in poorer regions and are often cited as examples of sustainable tourism. Tourism receipts have also been used to empower women by involving them in various aspects of the visitor experience. This has involved the preparation of craft and food products for sale to tourists.

Tourism inevitably results in contact between the local people and the visitors. This social interaction should lead to a mutual appreciation and understanding of each group’s way of life.

~Economic impacts~
The development of tourism can lead to economic prosperity in a number of ways. Job creation is the most obvious benefit with one in ten jobs worldwide associated with tourism. The jobs created fall into two categories:

• direct employment consists of jobs which involve face to face contact with tourists such as hotel staff.

• indirect employment consists of jobs which supply tourists needs, such as food processing or hotel furnishings.

Tourism is a labour intensive service industry, with many of the jobs requiring only a minimum amount of training. Jobs in hotels, restaurants, shops and in other recreational amenities, as well as beach or poolside attendants fall into this category and are an invaluable source of income for those with low level skills.

In the UK, 1.8 million people are employed directly in tourism and a further 2.4 million are employed indirectly. Many of these jobs are taken by people from the surrounding areas where there are limited opportunities for employment. Those in employment have increased spending power which generates increased consumer demand and leads to more spending in shops. In addition to the personal gain for those so employed, the taxation of their incomes provides additional funding for the government.

Successful tourist destinations encourage foreign investment into hotel chains.
For example, the Hilton hotel group has over 4800 hotels in more than 100 countries employing over 169,000 people. Tourist spending in hotels, bars, nightclubs and restaurants generates a large amount of income which can be invested in further development of the area. In addition, many tourist regions charge various types of tourist tax. These taxes are used either to fund further development in the region or to contribute towards conservation practices.

Question 8

Why Tourism Matters

Answer 8

Question 9

Global Variations in Tourist Numbers and Tourism Receipts

Answer 9

Question 10

European Tourist Taxes - Summer 2016

Answer 10

Question 11

Social Impacts of Ecotourism in Il N’Gwesi Geouo Ranch Kenya

Answer 11

Question 12

Economic Impacts of Tourism in Portugal

Answer 12

Question 13

Tourist Demands and Tourist

Answer 13

Tourism is a constantly changing industry.

• The increase in tourist numbers associated with mass tourism is one of the most striking changes as it reflects changes in society and increasing levels of prosperity.

• Although the richer MEDCs dominate tourism in terms of arrivals and receipts, there is a growing tourism industry in the emerging market countries such as India, China and Mexico. These countries have increased disposable incomes due to rapid economic growth and they are contributing to the rapid rise in tourism. They are also developing tourism destinations.

• Improvements in transport have also facilitated the growth of long haul flights and these are projected to double by 2020. Although it has been shown that the majority of tourists go on short haul flights, this development opens up the opportunity for a wider choice of holiday destinations.

• Tourism is driven by economic growth, with the strongest increases occurring in times of economic success and a slowing down in times of economic recession. Following the economic downturn in 2008, tourism continued to grow but at a slower rate for a number of years. Average annual growth in the years before 2008 was 6% but in the decade 2005-2015 average annual growth was 3.9%.

• Originally tourism and holidays were mostly confined to the summer season. Now there is a demand for holidays throughout the year. In addition to the traditional seaside summer holidays there are now winter holidays skiing or snowboarding and the warmer Mediterranean resorts are also popular during the off-peak season for some of the retired population from Northern Europe.

• With greater amounts of information available on the Internet and the media, other tourist opportunities are developing and there has been an increase in the range of holidays provided such as:

(I) Cultural and historical breaks - such as Florence,
Athens and stately homes in Britain.

(ii) City breaks - such as New York, London and Paris.

(iii) Theme parks - such as Disney World Florida.

(iv) Skiing and snowboarding - such as Val D’Isere,
French Alps.

(v) Ecotourism (environmentally friendly or green tourism) - such as Serengeti, Tanzania.

Question 14

Tourism Models

Answer 14

A number of models have been devised to explain these changes. Some of the models examine the changing demands of the tourist while others examine the evolution of the tourist resort.

1. Pleasure Periphery
This model focuses on the behavioural demands of the tourist over time. With increased prosperity and improvements in transport technology, long distance travel has been made easier. Mass media and advertising play a large role in promoting new and more exotic tourist destinations. Expectations are increased and tourism is envisaged as a ‘fashion industry’ where tourists want to spend their holidays in the new and more fashionable resorts. The boundaries of tourism are seen as a tidal wave spreading outwards from the tourists’ home area.

2. Butler Model
The Butler Model, or Tourist Area Life Cycle (TALC), charts the life cycle of a tourist resort over time. A tourist destination is viewed as a product and tourists are the consumers. The tourist resort is dynamic and, in the same way as any product such as a computer or car, evolves over time. Consumer demand also changes over time - consider how often we upgrade mobile phones. In essence, the Butler Model describes the progression of the resort from its earliest time through to its peak. After this, a tourist resort will eventually go into decline unless management policies effect an upgrade which can prolong or revitalise the fortunes of a tourist destination. The Butler Model was devised in 1980 before the widespread use of the Internet, which has
widened the choices available, but it is still an effective method of analysing the changing fortunes of tourist destinations.

There are six stages in this process, which are shown below:

(i) Exploration
At the beginning of a resort’s life cycle there are only a few tourists and minimum impact.

(ii) Involvement
In time the resort grows in popularity and the number of tourists increases. New developments including hotels, recreational facilities and general infrastructure are added. New emplovment opportunities for local people arise, although most of these are seasonal.

(iii) Development
Tourist numbers increase as a result of mass tourism through package holidays.
A significant portion of the tourist trade and the wealth it generates may be controlled and managed by international organisations to the detriment of the local economy.
Much of the work is seasonal, often employing people from surrounding rural areas.

(iv) Consolidation
Tourism is now a major industry in the region. Foreign companies continue to provide hotels etc but this leads to profits going abroad rather than being used in the resort.
The local area does benefit from the developments such as infrastructure and seasonal employment but decisions over the allocation of resources often favour tourism over local needs (see case study of Mallorca)

(v) Stagnation
The resort then becomes over crowded; the carrying capacity has been reached with increased pressure on resources. The resort is no longer fashionable and tourists seek newer resorts that better provide their demands. Eventually the resort suffers from over development or saturation.

(vi) Decline/ Rejuvenation
Saturation is followed by stagnation and decline, with loss of popularity for tourists and the international organisations. It is possible for a resort to recover from decline through a comprehensive management policy, a process known as rejuvenation.

Question 15

Pleasure Periphery

Question 16

Butler Model

Question 17

2. Challenges and Management of Mass Tourism

Answer 17

Students should be able to:

(i) demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the challenges that may arise from mass tourism - pollution, overcrowding, honeypot sites, social sustainability and competition for resources

(ii) evaluate strategies used to reduce the negative social and environmental impacts of mass tourism

Question 18

The Challenges that arise from Mass Tourism

Answer 18

The previous chapter dealt with the positive impacts that tourism can bring to a region.

However, it has been shown that tourism, and in particular mass tourism, can also present challenges for a region. In the rush to meet the demands of mass tourism, planners often promoted short-term economic gain over potential long-term environmental issues. Currently, most tourist areas have adopted a more sustainable approach to tourism development including some form of management. Among the challenges resultant from mass tourism are:

~Pollution~
Anything that detracts from or causes actual harm to a tourist attraction is a major concern for tourist resorts. Pollution, in the form of damaged landscapes or habitats, increased noise levels, litter and waste disposal issues, is one of the main negative impacts of tourism.

Mass tourism in the Mediterranean resorts from the 1960s onwards paid little attention to the long-term impacts on these regions. The rapid influx of tourists in the summer season put extra demands on the waste disposal capacity of that area. There were many reports of raw sewage in the sea and in 1989 the Spanish tourist resorts of Salou and Benidorm reported outbreaks of typhoid. The Mediterranean coastal region also experienced large-scale building of high-rise apartments and hotel blocks, resulting in overcrowded beaches and spoilt scenery.

Further environmental damage was caused by the construction of artificial beaches, where sand was excavated from the seabed and transported to another area in order to extend beach facilities there. Such activities alter the natural balance between erosion and deposition and have a negative impact on the biodiversity of the area. Furthermore, budget airlines and low cost package holidays facilitated ever increasing numbers to visit the region. The main tourist areas also developed shops, restaurants, nightclubs, bars and other recreational activities for the growing number of tourists. Such developments caused noise pollution, litter and anti-social behaviour. These issues presented challenges, which prompted remedial action through management policies.

Cruises have become increasingly popular in the last 15 years as tourists seek new types of holidays (see Pleasure Periphery, page 377). Over 2 million British tourists are predicted to take a cruise holiday in 2017. This represents a 100% increase since 2007.
Worldwide, approximately 25 million people chose a cruising holiday in 2016. In 2015, in Cruises have become more popular as a wider choice of destinations becomes available and more companies offer this type of holiday. Cruise ships have increased their passenger capacity, ranging from 3000 to 6000 passengers. They are essentially floating
towns which are totally self-contained. The cruise ships require the dredging of deep water channels, which can cause damage to marine habitats. They frequently deliver thousands of tourists to environmentally sensitive areas, such as Antarctica (Figure D22) and coral reefs in the Caribbean.
Fragile landscapes such as these are particularly vulnerable to environmental pollution from tourist developments. There are over 100 countries with coral reefs and about 25% of these reefs are damaged beyond repair, with a further 66% under serious threat. Tourism is said to have played a major part in this damage, with the commercial harvesting of coral
for sale to tourists or tourists themselves breaking off chunks as souvenirs. Cruise ship anchors and sewage also damage the reefs. However, it is the environmental pollution associated with the running and maintenance of these large ships that is causing growing concern.

~Overcrowding~

~Honeypot Sites~

~Social Sustainability~

~Competition for Resources~

Question 19

Cruise Ship Pollution

Question 20

A Model of Carrying Capacity

Question 21

Golf Courses and Water Supplies

Question 22

3. Ecotourism: Opportunities, Challenges and Regulation

Answer 22

Students should be able to:

(i) define ecotourism

(ii) demonstrate knowledge and understanding of how ecotourism can bring;

-social, economic and environmental benefits

• negative impacts:
  social (displacement of local communities and threats to indigenous cultures)
  economic (leakage)
  environmental (greenwashing and damage to fragile environments)

(iii) discuss the challenges in establishing effective international regulation and explain how each of the following measure are used to regulate ecotourism:

-the Québec Declaration

• Global Ecotourism Conference 2006
• Green Globe Scheme
• UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Question 23

The Challenges that Arise from Mass Tourism

Answer 23

The previous chapter dealt with the positive impacts that tourism can bring to a region.

However, it has been shown that tourism, and in particular mass tourism, can also present challenges for a region. In the rush to meet the demands of mass tourism, planners often promoted short-term economic gain over potential long-term environmental issues. Currently, most tourist areas have adopted a more sustainable approach to tourism development including some form of management. Among the challenges resultant from mass tourism are:

~Pollution~
Anything that detracts from or causes actual harm to a tourist attraction is a major concern for tourist resorts. Pollution, in the form of damaged landscapes or habitats, increased noise levels, litter and waste disposal issues, is one of the main negative impacts of tourism.

Mass tourism in the Mediterranean resorts from the 1960s onwards paid little attention to the long-term impacts on these regions. The rapid influx of tourists in the summer season put extra demands on the waste disposal capacity of that area. There were many reports of raw sewage in the sea and in 1989 the Spanish tourist resorts of Salou and Benidorm reported outbreaks of typhoid. The Mediterranean coastal region also experienced large-scale building of high-rise / apartments and hotel blocks, resulting in overcrowded beaches and spoilt scenery.

Further environmental damage was caused by the construction of artificial beaches, where sand was excavated from the seabed and transported to another area in order to extend beach facilities there. Such activities alter the natural balance between erosion and deposition and have a negative impact on the biodiversity of the area. Furthermore, budget airlines and low cost package holidays facilitated ever increasing numbers to visit the region. The main tourist areas also developed shops, restaurants, nightclubs, bars and other recreational activities for the growing number of tourists. Such developments caused noise pollution, litter and anti-social behaviour. These issues presented challenges, which prompted remedial action through management policies.

Cruises have become increasingly popular in the last 15 years as tourists seek new types of holidays. Over 2 million British tourists are predicted to take a cruise holiday in 2017. This represents a 100% increase since 2007. Worldwide, approximately 25 million people chose a cruising holiday in 2016. In 2015, in Cruises have become more popular as a wider choice of destinations becomes available and more companies offer this type of holiday. Cruise ships have increased their passenger capacity, ranging from 3000 to 6000 passengers. They are essentially floating towns which are totally self-contained. The cruise ships require the dredging of deep water channels, which can cause damage to marine habitats. They frequently deliver thousands of tourists to environmentally sensitive areas, such as Antarctica (Figure D22) and coral reefs in the Caribbean. Fragile landscapes such as these are particularly vulnerable to environmental pollution from tourist developments. There are over 100 countries with coral reefs and about 25% of these reefs are damaged beyond repair, with a further 66% under serious threat. Tourism is said to have played a major part in this damage, with the commercial harvesting of coral
for sale to tourists or tourists themselves breaking off chunks as souvenirs. Cruise ship anchors and sewage also damage the reefs. However, it is the environmental pollution associated with the running and maintenance of these large ships that is causing growing concern.

Tourism relies on efficient transport infrastructure, including airports and roads, and these have major potential for environmental pollution. High altitude skiing areas require cable cars, ski lifts and possibly funicular railways, resulting in extensive forest clearance. There are currently about 300 ski areas throughout the Alps, where 10,000 transport facilities serve more than 3,400 km? of ski areas. The laying of ski runs can lead to erosion and loss of biodiversity, causing irreparable damage to the landscape. The increasing use of snow canons to create artificial snow leads to additional problems as they use large amounts of water and energy, as well as chemical and biological additives. In Switzerland, ski resorts have also well developed mountaineering and hill walking tourist activities, which threaten the environment through trampling, footpath erosion and damage to wildlife habitats.

~Overcrowding~
Increased numbers of tourists visiting a resort put seasonal pressure on the resources of that area. In the case of rural tourism to country parks, the attraction is often the quiet, peaceful and scenic landscape. An influx of tourists will bring welcome revenue but the provision of amenities such as car parks, caravan sites and shops can damage the scenic attraction of the area, cause footpath erosion and threaten wildlife habitats.

The term ’carrying capacity’ is often used in Geography to set an upper limit or threshold population that can be supported by an area. In relation to tourism, the carrying capacity of a resort refers to the maximum number of tourists that can be comfortably supported in that resort. An increase in tourist numbers would adversely affect the tourist potential of the area and lead to a decline in numbers.

Essentially there are two components involved in assessing the carrying capacity of a tourist resort:

1. The maximum number of people that can be supported without causing adverse environmental impacts in the region, such as footpath erosion or vegetation trampling. This is sometimes referred to as the physical carrying capacity*.
2. The maximum number of people that can be supported without causing a decline in visitor enjoyment of an attraction, sometimes referred to as the quality of visitor experience*.

Physical carrying capacity is relatively easy to measure because the environmental outcomes (footpath erosion, damaged habitats) are obvious. However, setting a numerical limit on the numbers of people that can be supported without damaging the quality of visitor experience is much more subjective and will vary between types of tourist activity and the personality traits of the tourists themselves. Some tourist activities, such as hill walking, will typically have a lower carrying capacity than beach holidays. However, these are not absolute facts and there are many examples of large groups involved in hill walking. Furthermore, there are added difficulties or conflicts between different types of tourist activities in the same region. In the Peak District National Park, the National Park Authorities introduced a zoning plan whereby conflicting users of the Park were restricted to specific areas.

Carrying capacity also refers to the supply/demand balance of amenities in an area. This might include the provision of car parks, hotels and general infrastructure. Some of the issues relating to problems in the Mediterranean resorts dealt with in the ‘Pollution’ section are also closely related to carrying capacity.

One measure of the effects that increased numbers of tourists have on the quality of visitor experience is known as Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC). This approach accepts that all tourism has impacts on a region and looks for ways to keep these impacts under control. In Arches National Park (Utah), a number of surveys were carried out to determine the number of visitors deemed acceptable in selected sites. Tourists were shown computer generated photographs of the sites occupied by different numbers of people, ranging from 2 to over 100 and asked to state which numbers they considered acceptable and unacceptable. The tourists rated the impact of the numbers of People At Any One Time (PAOT) on a scale of -4 to +4.

• A positive value meant the resort had not been adversely affected by the numbers of people.

• A negative value meant the resort had been adversely affected.

• A value of zero indicates the maximum number that can be tolerated in the resort without damaging the quality of visitor experience. This number of tourists represents the Limit of Acceptable Change.

Essentially, carrying capacity is a framework within which those in charge of tourism can monitor developments in a region and formulate management policies if necessary. In some cases conservation orders, which are legally binding, are placed on an area to protect it from excessive and damaging use.

These can be at local level (such as Sites of Special Scientific Interest, SSSIs) or at regional level (such as National Parks). There are also conservation policies at a European level, Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), which deal with wildlife habitats and at international level, World Heritage Sites (sites which have global importance). Once carrying capacity has been reached, tourist management policies can be employed to increase the carrying capacity or at least correct the damage. However, in some cases this may not be possible and the resort will go into decline.

~Honeypot Sites~
frequently found in rural areas that have scenic, historic or other tourist attractions.
The honeypot site is often created by rural planners to confine tourists to specific locations, while leaving the remainder of the region relatively free of tourists. These locations provide car parks, picnic and other tourist facilities, and therefore attract large numbers of visitors. The pressure of numbers can lead to overcrowding, which damages the tourism potential of the area. Overcrowding can also cause problems for local farmers.

The village of Castleton in the Peak District National Park had a population of 641 in the 2011 census but each year over 2 million tourists visit, the majority of whom come during the peak holiday season. The surrounding National Park has many attractions including geological sites, caves and caverns, hill walking opportunities, and cultural and historic sites. The area is remote and most people visit by car or as part of an organised coach tour. Congestion and inadequate tourist amenities have caused serious problems for Castleton. Concerns that a similar situation could develop in the Mournes were among the reasons for local obiection to the Mournes being designated a National Park.

In the UK a number of management strategies have been devised to protect and manage the attractions of these rural areas. These strategies include the creation of Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBS) and SSSIs/ASSIs.

**~Social Sustainability~*^
Social sustainability refers to the ability of a community to function and adapt to changing situations without having their attitudes and ways of life altered in an adverse manner. Tourism can boost the economy of a region and young people in particular will leave traditional occupations in rural areas for higher paid employment in the service sector, such as in hotels and cafés. This can have a positive impact on the rural areas if money is sent back to the rural communities, in much the same way as migrants often send remittances back home. However, many of the jobs associated with tourism are seasonal and the tourism employee may have no income for part of the year. In addition, much of the work offers lower wages than other sectors of industry. Tour companies wish to keep costs low, particularly in the face of rising fuel prices in the early 2000s and the economic recession since 2008. This, combined with an abundant labour supply, results in the wages remaining low.

There are also limited opportunities for skills development or promotion. Workers often find that because of the seasonal nature of their employment they have to work long and anti-social hours for several months of the year. It has also been shown that this type of work can lead to the break-up of families. As much of the tourist trade is dominated by MNCs (Multi-National Companies), a lot of the money generated from tourism remains with the MNCs and does not benefit the local community. This process is referred to as leakage.

Tourists introduce an additional layer of cultural diversity to a region. In some ways this can be an enriching experience but on other occasions it can result in new challenges.
Cultural conflicts can often arise from inter accasions it can this is especially the case where the more relaxed attitudes of modern tourists towards dress code and alcohol are at odds with more conservative local attitudes in the tourist destination. Potential cultural conflicts exist in some Middle Eastern countries and tourist resorts have even come under attack by those opposed to western cultures in Egypt.

In Tunisia in 2014, a gunman from Islamic State shot 30 British tourists dead. In Kenya, much of the tourist trade is focused on the wildlife reserves and the Maasai tribes. The Maasai are tribal pastoralists viewed both as an asset and a threat to tourist development by the Kenyan government. Their traditional lifestyles and customs are regarded as a potential attraction for tourists but their nomadic lifestyle meant they once herded their animals on the protected wildlife reserves until the government resettled them outside these protected areas. This inevitably caused difficulties for the Maasai, leading many to abandon their traditional way of life and become involved in the provision of services such as craft centres. Tourism has brought increased wealth to these areas but overall the lifestyle of the Maasai has been changed and younger members are unlikely to keep up the traditional way of life. In many tourist destinations there is a lack of integration between tourists and the local population.

The display of wealth by international tourisfs often attracts numbers of unemployed people searching for employment. This can leave these people vulnerable to exploitation by unscrupulous individuals. On occasions where no work is available, some women and children end up in prostitution. There is a global child sex tourism industry, within which more than 1 million children are sexually abused by tourists every year. Although there are a number of organisations working on this issue, the numbers involved in child sex tourism are increasing. Thailand, Cambodia, India.
Brazil and Mexico have been cited as having the largest numbers of child prostitutes.
Management strategies to deal with some of the issues raised here usually rely on international agreements formulated by bodies such as the UN or through NGOs such as Tourism Concern (a UK based charity that campaigns for human rights in tourism).

The World Tourism Organisation has drawn up a code of ethics for tourism and although the code is not legally binding, countries are encouraged to comply with its recommendations. Tourism Concern has also produced documents relating to serious infringements on human rights, including child prostitution and human trafficking.
The EU set up The European Trade Union Liaison Committee on Tourism (ETLC) in 1995 to represent workers in the tourism sector. This organisation is mainly concerned with the promotion of sustainable employment in the tourism industry.

~Competition for Resources~
A tourist region requires investment in infrastructure (roads, airports) and amenities (hotels, entertainment). Such developments require vast amounts of money as well as land and water supplies. These things are often not in abundant supply and in such situations conflicts of interest can occur between the needs of the local community and the needs of the tourist industry. Tourism offers the potential of vast economic rewards and, as already stated, in some countries is a major export earner. It also offers the promise of foreign investment. In many cases, when it comes to allocating scarce resources, the needs of local people are sacrificed for the interests of the tourist industry. This competition for resources occurs worldwide but some of the most serious issues have been witnessed in the LEDCs or at least among poorer communities.

One of the significant tourist developments in the last 25 years has been golf tourism.
The economic boom of the 1980s led to a worldwide growth in the number of golf courses. Bv the 1990s, 350 new golf courses were being built annually. Golf courses require large areas of land and there have been many reported cases of land being taken forcibly from local farmers who received little or no compensation. In addition, golf courses use vast amounts of water.

In Cyprus, the government gave the go-ahead for 14 new golf courses in 2009, bringing the total number on the island to 17. Each golf course uses approximately 50 million litres of water each year. This is equivalent to the total water used annually by 1000 average households. Water supply is already a problem and reserves are said to be at their lowest for a century. In addition, large amounts of artificial fertiliser, pesticides and herbicides are used on golf courses. Much of these will get washed into ground water supplies, causing contamination of fresh water supplies.

Mass tourism and improvements in air travel have enabled
tourists from wealthy countries to travel to exotic tropical locations, often in LEDCs.
The contrast in the amounts of water used by the locals and the tourists are very stark.
For example, the estimated daily domestic water consumption of local people on the island of Zanzibar, east of Tanzania, is just 30 litres per day. In contrast, luxury resorts in zanzibar use up to 2000 litres of water per tourist per dav: Some hotels even have guards patrolling their water pipelines to prevent locals from trying to tap into them.

Many indigenous groups have been forcibly displaced from their traditional lands in order to facilitate tourist developments. There are examples of governments and tourist developers moving tribal peoples from their lands in Kenya, Peru, Thailand and Honduras. Governments and developers have argued that much of this displacement was necessary in the interests of conservation and ecotourism but many of those displaced appear to have received little compensation.

It is obvious that the needs of local people have been overlooked in many cases. The problem is really a conflict between the potential wealth that tourist development can bring and fulfilling the everyday needs of the local community. There are a number of organisations that work to bring some of the worst examples to the public domain. By highlighting the most serious injustices that have occurred, these organisations hope to heighten people’s moral consciousness against these developments. Tourism Concern successfully campaigned against a planned E2.8 billion tourist development in Zanzibar, with luxury hotels, golf courses and an airport. The development threatened the livelihood of some 20,000 local people, who feared they might be displaced and lose their valuable agricultural land. Tourism Concern also campaigned against forced displacements in various parts of East Africa.

The World Tourism Organisation, a United Nations Organisation, sets out to promote the sustainable development of tourism throughout the world and encourages the implementation of the aims and objectives of the Sustainable Development Goals in tourism development in LEDCs.

Question 24

Cruise Ship Pollution

Question 25

A Model of Carrying Capacity

Question 26

Golf Courses and Water Supplies

Question 27

3. Ecotourism: Opportunities, Challenges and Regulation

Answer 27

Students should be able to:

(i) define ecotourism

(ii) demonstrate knowledge and understanding of how ecotourism can bring:

• social, economic and environmental benefits
• negative impacts:
  social (displacement of local communities and threats to indigenous cultures),
  economic (leakage),
  environmental (greenwashing and damage to fragile environments)

(iii) discuss the challenges in establishing effective international regulation and explain how each of the following measures is used to regulate ecotourism:

• the Québec Declaration
• Global Ecotourism Conference 2007
• Green Globe Scheme
• UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Question 28

Ecotourism

Question 29

Social, Economic and Environmental Benefits of Ecotourism

Answer 29

If ecotourism is carefully regulated and managed it can lead to a number of potential benefits to an area and its communities.

~Social Benefits~
Many ecotourism destinations are in LEDCs where there are few job opportunities for young people. This frequently leads to out migration of those in the economically active age groups. Over time this process results in an ageing population and has a detrimental effect on social sustainability. Potential job opportunities created by ecotourism can halt, or at least curtail this out-migration. Ecotourism projects are planned and managed at local level involving large numbers of the indigenous population working as guides, preparing food and providing accommodation.
Engagement in such activities can help sustain a local community. In addition, many ecotourists are accommodated in eco lodges (groups of small wooden huts built in clearings in the forest) or in local people’s houses. This creates the opportunity for interaction between the tourists and local people, helps sustain traditional cultures and increases mutual understanding.

The revenue from ecotourism can help fund projects that will lead to an increase in the standard of living. Examples include improved sanitation, water supply, health care, education, power supply and communications. Increased awareness of the needs of these communities can also encourage aid donations from tourists. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) programme launched in 2015 highlighted sustainable tourism, including ecotourism as a means of empowering women. This can be achieved partly by involving women in producing and selling local craft products. It has been shown that women’s rights have been strengthened in this way.

~Economic Benefits~
As mentioned earlier, ecotourism creates employment opportunities and wealth that can be used to raise the standard of living in these destinations. Income is earned through the provision of essential services such as food, accommodation and entertainment for tourists. Education and training schemes enhance the level of skills of the local people who are then better equipped to gain higher paid jobs. In the best examples of ecotourism, all or most of the profit remains in the local area and is either invested into new projects or is paid in wages to the community. In turn this leads to a fall in poverty levels, an increase in disposable income and a greater demand for consumer goods.

~Environmental Benefits~
The main focus of ecotourism is based around an appreciation of the natural environment and the need for sustainable use of resources. In the best examples of ecotourism the principles of sustainability are incorporated through the use of biodegradable soaps and packaging, green energy such as solar power, recycling and conservation of water resources. In addition, local products are used where possible to reduce the need for imports. By employing guides trained in ecosystem protection methods, damage to fragile environments is minimised. Information programmes designed to heighten awareness of the need to safeguard fragile environments have been shown to increase support for protected land status such as marine parks and wildlife reserves. Funding for conservation practices is gained from entrance fees charged at parks or for safari tours.

Question 30

Goal 5

Question 31

Negative Impacts of Ecotourism

Answer 31

As stated earlier, ecotourism is controversial and there are examples of destinations advertising holidays in remote fragile environments which do not comply with its essential criteria. Many of these destinations are adversely affected by the development of a tourism product which is not based on the principles of sustainability.

~Negative Social Impacts~

Displacement of local communities and threats to indigenous cultures
There are many reported incidents of local people being removed, sometimes forcibly, from their villages to make way for so-called ecotourism projects. Such practices also threaten traditional cultures. The Maasai people in East Africa are one example of a community displaced from their traditional grazing lands by the creation of one of the world’s best-known wildlife parks, the Maasai Mara. The Maasai are a nomadic pastoralist community whose grazing lands extend across large parts of East Africa including the countries of Kenya and Tanzania. Approximately 70% of the national parks and game reserves in this area occupy land that was formerly used as grazing land by the Maasai. They have been denied access to grazing land in the protected areas, putting their only livelihood at risk. Most received no compensation and few have secured employment in the reserves, as most of the jobs go to more educated workers. Furthermore, tourism is not managed locally and the profits are not used for the benefit of the local community. In some cases game reserves were created without informing or consulting local people, who found out about the situation only when they received an eviction notice. Several thousand Maasai were removed from game reserves in Tanzania to make way for an exclusive game-hunting area. In 2009, a mass eviction left more than 200 homes burned and 3000 people homeless.

The Maasai traditional way of life is under threat from ecotourism in other ways. Attempts to relocate the Maasai in permanent settlements endangers their culture, which is based around a nomadic way of life.
This has had a negative impact on some Maasai people, leading to an increase in alcoholism and prostitution. Mingling with tourists has brought the Maasai into contact with western diseases such as measles and chickenpox to which
they have little immunity. The Maasai people are also viewed as a ‘backdrop to the ecotourist experience and many feel exploited as they are photographed by wealthy western visitors. The presence of affluent ecotourists has also encouraged the development of markets in wildlife souvenirs such as ivory. These practices are at odds with conservation policies and are happening in many other destinations worldwide.

In Botswana, the San people maintain a traditional hunting and gathering culture.
They are known for their extensive knowledge of medicinal plants, spiritual healing and elaborate dance rituals. Between is edge of medicinal plants spotly removed from their ancestral home in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve. Their homes were dismantled, schools and health services were shut down, their water supply was destroyed and lives were threatened.

In 2006, the San won a legal case that claimed their eviction from the reserve was unlawful and granted them the right to return home. However, they have been banned from hunting and must apply for permits to enter the reserve.

~Negative Economic Impacts~

Leakage
According to the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) only half of the tourist spending in LEDCs remains there. The remainder goes to foreign developers based in the wealthier MEDCs. This process is known as leakage. Leakage is not confined to ecotourism but its effects are particularly damaging in that sector because many ecotourism developments occur in LEDCs. Leakage can occur when the developments are owned by foreign companies such as major hotel chains. For example in Belize, a Central American country where ecotourism has developed, over 90% of recent developments are large-scale luxury hotels owned by international companies. Profits generated in these hotels return to the parent company. In these circumstances the only economic benefit to the local community is derived from employment opportunities. Many of these are low paid and seasonal. Better paid jobs, such as managers, are allocated to skilled workers from within the hotel network and are mainly from outside the local area. Leakage can also occur when products for the tourism development are imported rather than using local products. Partly this may be due to limited local availability but a desire to maximise profits in the developer’s country is also significant. Whatever the reason, this leakage constitutes a loss of income to the country concerned.

~Negative Environmental Impacts~

Greenwashing and damage to fragile environments
Since there is no mechanism for imposing internationally agreed legal requirements on ecotourism developments there are incidences where these have been largely ignored. Ecotourism is a financially rewarding enterprise and some developers have sought to increase the range of holidays on offer by providing luxury holidays disguised as ‘sustainable’ or environmentally friendly. For example, luxury hotels in fragile environments that claim to have an energy saving policy. Such activities are described as ‘greenwashing. Many of these hotels are foreign owned with little involvement with the local community apart from low-level skilled jobs. They are often located on prime natural sites with landscaped gardens and swimming pools.
This leads to leakage of revenue back to the headquarters usually in richer MEDCs. Luxury hotels and their guests have limited social integration with the local community. They pose a threat to fragile environments because of their unsustainable use of scarce resources including water.

Greenwashing can cause actual damage to fragile environments through increased pressure from tourists. In the Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya considerable damage has been caused to the natural vegetation by the large numbers of safari minibuses which transport tourists through the reserve. Once the natural vegetation is damaged the area becomes prone to invasion by secondary vegetation types. In addition, the increased number of vehicles poses a threat to the wildlife.

Coral reefs are especially vulnerable to tourist pressure. Reefs are damaged by boat anchors, tourists breaking off pieces of coral as souvenirs, and pollution. In Belize, so-called ecotourism developments have resulted in serious environmental degradation issues including:

•Mangrove swamps have been drained to make way for a landing strip, destroying important nesting grounds for birds. The coral reef has been damaged and there is over fishing, leading to a decline in lobster numbers.

• Unsupervised groups of tourists are permitted to visit nature reserves and they often fail to take sufficient care of the environment.

Fragile environments are also threatened by any form of development. The building of infrastructure, even for the most compliant of ecotourism developments, is potentially damaging. The clearance of forested land to build water treatment plants for eco lodges in Costa Rica reduced the habitat for squirrel monkeys. In other places, the inadequacy of sanitation facilities has resulted in waste and sewage being dumped in rivers.

Question 32

Ecotourism Regulation

Answer 32

Ecotourism has made a significant contribution to economic and social development in areas, especially LEDCs. It has also promoted and sustained conservation practices.
However, as the previous section highlighted, there are many examples of ecotourism having had negative impacts including displacement of local communities, leakage, greenwashing and damage to fragile environments. In some areas attention has focussed on short-term economic gain without any real regard for the long-term impacts on local society or the environment. The term ‘ecotourism’ is frequently applied incorrectly to any form of tourism developments in remote or natural environments. Five star luxury ‘eco lodges’ in the Maasai Mara game reserves and in the rainforests of Costa Rica are just two examples of this practice. Transport improvements have made even the most remote areas accessible and as tourists seek new tourism opportunities there is a growing threat to environmentally sensitive areas such as Alaska. These areas generally have a low carrying capacity and require effective management policies to prevent serious damage. Ecotourism is relatively recent, developing since the 1980s, and it has taken time for management policies and regulation to become established. Although there is general agreement on the need for the management of ecotourism, establishing effective regulation has proved difficult. Some examples of these challenges are listed below:

• Ecotourism destinations cover a wide range of physical and cultural environments. Each presents a unique set of issues which have to be addressed.

• Establishing effective regulation across international boundaries is difficult and relies on agreements between tour operators and providers. Monitoring the level of compliance with regulation is also challenging.

• Ensuring that the criteria used to grant an ecotourism certificate or award is sufficiently rigorous.

•Raising awareness to ecotourism regulators that in some LEDC situations ecotourism is the main source of employment and income.

• Safeguarding the human rights of indigenous communities including their entitlement to shelter and livelihoods must be considered in all ecotourism projects. Local communities should be involved in these projects.

•Ensuring that the profits from ecotourism are shared with the indigenous population or used to fund social projects such as education and health care.

The emphasis on sustainability that emerged from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 was a landmark event promoting the inclusion of the principles of sustainability in all aspects of development. Several global initiatives emerged from the Rio Summit leading up to the new millennium. The United Nations also recognised the contribution of tourism, including ecotourism, in raising living standards in LEDCs through the Millennium Development Goals programme. The United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) designated 2002 as the International Year of Ecotourism. The UNWTO organised a World Ecotourism Summit in Québec in May 2002.

Question 33

The Québec Declaration 2002

Answer 33

In May 2002, over one thousand delegates from 132 countries stended the would Ecotourism Summit in Québec to discuss means of ecotourism regulation. The delegates at the summit recognised the growing interest in ecotourism and the economic potential it offered to indigenous communities especially in LEDCs. They also recognised that ecotourism could contribute significantly to conservation of environmentally sensitive areas. However, there was also a recognition that unregulated ecotourism could result in environmental damage, economic leakage and ultimately have serious negative impacts on local and indigenous communities. Their findings and recommendations were published in the Québec Declaration. Forty-eight recommendations were made to five main organisations and groups involved in the delivery of ecotourism:

1. National, regional and local governments
2. The private sector including tour operators
3. NGOs
4. International agencies
5. Local indigenous communities

The wide range of organisations and groups included in the Declaration emphasised the complexity in finding a sustainable approach to ecotourism. The recommendations in the Declaration focussed on two main aims:

1. To ensure the principles of economic, social and environmental sustainability are incorporated in all ecotourism destinations.
2. To encourage all ecotourism providers to conduct self-regulation schemes.

Self-regulation schemes involved the use of sustainability indicators and environmental impact assessments which would monitor the impact of ecotourism projects. The findings of these assessments were to be made public.

Many ecotourism destinations undertake self-regulation and gain membership of recognised ecotourism certification schemes. Examples include the Eco Warrior Awards (Kenya) and The Rainforest Alliance (an international scheme).

Question 34

The Global Ecotourism Conference 2007 (GEC07)

Answer 34

Five years after the Québec Declaration, The Global Ecotourism Conference (GEC07) took place in Oslo (Norway). GEC07 had two main aims:

• To assess the achievements and challenges to ecotourism since 2002.

• To renew the commitment of national and regional ecotourism organisations to policies that would strengthen the industry’s role in conservation and sustainable development.

Achievements from 2002-2007 include:

•An increasing number of countries and regions had developed ecotourism self-regulation strategies.

• Many ecotourism projects aimed to provide sustainable livelihoods to local people and contribute to conservation

• Increased awareness of environmental issues such as climate change and their impacts on indigenous communities.

• The number of tourists visiting an ecotourism destination continued to grow.

• The wider travel and tourism industry had adopted some of the principles of sustainability that had been pioneered by ecotourism.

• Tourism in general and ecotourism in particular was recognised as a means of supporting the Millennium Development Goals programme target of poverty alleviation.

However, in spite of the achievements since the Ouebec Declaration, a number of challenges still remained in 2007 including:

• Many of the world’s natural areas remained under threat and there was a substantial loss of biodiversity in a number of areas. The increase in the number of tourists contributed to this increased pressure.

• The term ecotourism was still being applied loosely, leading to greenwashing.

• As many ecotourism destinations required long-distance flights the carbon footprint of the industry remained large and needed a concerted effort to reduce its emissions of greenhouse gases.

• Local communities were not fully involved in the delivery of ecotourism in their destination.

In response to these challenges GEC07 set out four themes and a number of actions that built upon the achievements of the Québec Declaration and addressed the outstanding challenge. In contrast to the Québec Declaration, which made recommendations specific to five main organisations or groups and focussed on self-regulation schemes, GEC07 applied their proposals to all involved in the delivery of ecotourism and set out strategies to be employed.

Question 35

Green Globe Scheme

Answer 35

The emphasis on self-regulation schemes for ecotourism has often been criticised because it is difficult to have equal standards across such a wide range of destinations. Partly in response to this a number of global certification schemes have been developed. The Green Globe Scheme, developed in Los Angeles between 1992 and 1994 following the Rio Summit in 1992, is one of the best-known examples of a global certification scheme. It is a structured assessment of the sustainability of all aspects of a tourism product including travel to and from the destination, as well as hotel policies on energy use, recycling and building materials used. The scheme is wide ranging and is not restricted to ecotourism but can be applied to all components of tourism, including beach holidays and cruise ships.

The Green Globe Scheme assesses sustainability across 44 core criteria, grouped into four areas which are supported by 380 compliance indicators. These indicators are adapted to specific destinations and the entire scheme is reviewed and updated twice annually. To guarantee compliance, an independent auditor works with the tour companies on site. It is in use in over 90 countries. Three levels of certification are available:

1. Green Globe Standard - awarded to new members who have met all the required criteria.
2. Gold Member status - awarded to those who have held the standard award for five consecutive years.
3. Platinum status - may be awarded to those who have been members for at lest ten years.

Question 36

UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Answer 36

The UN Education Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites is a global strategy employed to protect sites that display some cultural, scientific or historical importance. Cultural and historical sites have been selected because they exhibit unique and remarkable human endeavour. Examples include the Italian cities of Florence and Venice, and the remains of ancient settlements and temples. Scientific sites are chosen for unique geological or ecological importance. Coral reefs, areas with rich biodiversity and volcanic areas are examples of such sites.

UNESCO World Heritage Site designation was introduced in
1972. It followed a petition to the USA and Europe from Egypt and Sudan in the late 1950s concerning possible threats posed by the building of the Aswan Dam to archaeological sites, including temples dating back to 15 BC. In return for financial and technological assistance in preserving these sites Egypt donated the remains of the three temples to Europe and the Temple of Dendur to the USA. The temple was removed and reconstructed in the Metropolitan Museum in New York. This incident raised awareness of the financial burden a country, especially an LEDC, incurred in protecting valuable sites. A special UN committee discussed this issue and proposed the designation of World Heritage Site status.

A UNESCO World Heritage designation aims to:

• encourage countries to sign the World Heritage Convention and to ensure the protection of their natural and cultural heritage.
encourage member countries to set up management plans and reporting systems on the state of conservation of their World Heritage sites.

• help safeguard World Heritage properties by providing technical assistance and professional training.

• provide emergency assistance for World Heritage sites in immediate danger.

• support public awareness-building activities for World Heritage conservation.

• encourage participation of the local population in the preservation of their cultural and natural heritage.

• encourage international co-operation in the conservation of the world’s cultural and natural heritage.

Countries wishing to avail of this designation must create a Tentative List of sites that could be potentially proposed for inscription on the World Heritage List. Once proposed, these sites are evaluated by one of UNESCO’s advisory bodies. To be added to the List, each site must demonstrate it has Outstanding Universal Value (OUV), and meet at least one of ten criteria. Whether to add a site to the World Heritage List is decided by the World Heritage Committee, which meets once a year.

There are a number of advantages from this designation including:

• funding and technical assistance in the formulation of management and conservation plans.

• World Heritage Site status raises public awareness of the significance of the location and increases its tourism potential.

• the use of ‘endangered species’ and ‘endangered site emphasises the urgent need for conservation.

• designated sites are legally protected by international treaties even in times of war. Therefore, having a UNESCO World Heritage designation provides excellent protection for a fragile environment.