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Neural Control of Human Movement > Topic Test 3 > Flashcards

Topic Test 3 Flashcards

1
Q

what is the importance of structure (in neuroanatomy)?

A

tells us a lot about function
- complexity of human cerebrum surface
- size of olfactory bulb (think about purpose, ex. in rats their bulb relatively much larger = better neurons for smell and sense of smell)

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2
Q

Historically we didn’t have brain imaging techniques to rely on - what was used?

A

dissection (postmortem) and staining (cut into thin slices and stain with chemicals)
*now we can see in vivo!

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3
Q

new technologies (in brain imaging) allow us to see _

A

living brains (in vivo)

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4
Q

describe the 2 major types of imaging

A
  • Structural (structure of brain)
  • Functional (gives additional info where we ssee changes happening while people are thinking/doing things)
    *+other techniques and advancements
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5
Q

list the tests used in structural imaging

A
  • computed tomography (CT/CAT) - 70s
  • magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - 80s
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6
Q

list the tests used in functional imaging

A
  • positron emission tomography (PET) - 80s
  • functional MRI (fMRI) - 90s
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7
Q

list other techniques and advancements (aside from structural/functional)

A
  • diffusion tensor imaging - 90s
  • improving MRIs
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8
Q

describe CT (and give the full name)

A

computed tomography (CT/CAT)
- digitally reconstructed x-rays (360 degrees to provide “slices” of the object
(cross section in different orientations)

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9
Q

list the pros of CT scans

A

PROS
- can see bone, brain, organs, etc. (good at picking up differences in tissue)
- great for bleeding and tumors (ex. intercranial hemmorhage)
- quick scan
- lower cost and shorter wait times than MRI

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10
Q

List the cons of CT scans

A

CONS
- low doses of radiation
- images may not be as detailed as other techniques

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11
Q

describe MRI (and provide full name)

A

magnetic resonance imaging
- no radiation, just a large magnetic field
- different atoms interact differently within the magnetic field (interprets this and makes a 3D picture)
- build a “map” based on this (can also have slices in any direction)
- stronger magnet = clearer images

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12
Q

how is the strength of the magnet communicated in MRIs?

A

rated as Tesla units (0.5T-3t+)
- 3T = clearer magnet and higher resolution
*can go higher but usually to 3t

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13
Q

describe the pros of MRIs

A
  • no radiation
  • great view of soft tissues (while CT was good at bone structure)
  • can highlight different types of tissues (eg. T1 vs T2)
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14
Q

What’s the difference between T1 and T2 MRIs?

A

T1: enhances the signal of the fatty tissue and suppresses the signal of the water
T2: T2-weighted MRI enhances the signal of the water (ie. can see CSF)

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15
Q

list the cons of MRI

A
  • longer scan times
  • can be very noisy
  • metal implants may cause issues
  • longer wait times and more expensive
  • magnet can be dangerous (attracts everything metal, is always on)
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16
Q

MRI provides _ based on specific sequences of the scan

A

“slices” of images

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17
Q

what brain imaging technique is often used in MS?

A

MRI is the best way to see lesions
- preferred diagnosis technique (not only diagnosing factor but can help)
- symptoms + imaging and other tests
- can identify previous damage, new inflammation, and even atrophy over time (can see fluid/edema/inflammation around myelin)

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18
Q

describe PET (and provide full name)

A
  • imaging with radioactive tracer
  • can be used with CT or MRI
  • IV with tracer and compounds used by the body (e.g. glucose)
  • measures metabolic activity of the cells of body tissues (highlights active areas when certain areas use more glucose)
  • used to diagnoses brain disorders, cancers, etc.
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19
Q

describe what fluorodopa is and how it’s used

A
  • specific tracer that can be used in PET scan (but maybe also MRI?)
  • mimics dopa, used as building block to create dopamine
  • used to detect damaged or lost dopaminergic neurons
  • support the diagnosis and the evaluating progression and treatment
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20
Q

Describe FMRI (and provide full name)

A
  • measure changes in blood flow
  • increased blood flow (RED on picture) means increased neural activity, decreased (BLUE)
  • no injection required and better resolution than PET
  • used to map brains for surgery, diagnose diseases, and provides many research opportunities
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21
Q

describe new technique - diffusion tensor imaging

A
  • visualizes large bundles of axons in the brain
  • uses an MRI to compare the diffusion of water that occurs along axons
  • direction of traces are represented with different colours
  • understand and track the changes in teh structure of the brain with aging/disease
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22
Q

describe the new technique - improving MRIs

A
  • most “new” techniques come in the form of improvements of this technology
  • improving scan times (2-3 minutes to seconds)
  • improving resolution of images (<3T)
  • segmentation of images (could be helpful in identifying/monitoring disease)
  • measuring different tings (fluid levels, tissue stiffness, etc.)
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23
Q

while we have amazing tech adcances and ongoing breakthroughs in imaging, moving these techniques into _ takes time

A

clinical practice

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24
Q

name the anatomical planes

A

*three major planes, all 90 degrees to each other
- sagittal (midsaggital split down the middle)
- frontal (coronal)
- transverse (horizontal)

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25
Q

list the anatomical terms

A
  • dorsal (superior at brain/towards back at SC)
  • caudal (posterior)
  • rostral (anterior)
  • ventral (inferior at brain and anterior at SC)
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26
Q

how is the nervous system divided in gross organization of the body?

A
  • central nervous system (cns/brain and SC)
  • peripheral nervous system (pns)
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27
Q

describe the spinal cord

A
  • conduit of information (brain-body)
  • spinal nerves
  • dorsal roots - sensory (afferent)
  • ventral roots - motor (efferent)
    *still lots of processing happening here
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28
Q

define dorsal root ganglia

A

clusters of neuronal cell bodies outside the spinal cord that contain somatic sensory axons

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29
Q

describe the peripheral nervous system

A
  • nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord
    somatic PNS: innervates skin, joints, muscles
    *dorsal root ganglia: clusters of neuronal cel bodies outside the spinal cord that contain somatic sensory axons
  • visceral PNS: innervates internal organs, blood vessels, glands
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30
Q

where are soma of sensory nerves located?

A

outside of spinal cord

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31
Q

differentiate afferent and efferent axons

A
  • afferent (“carry to”): carry information toward the CNS (ie. sensory)
    *affect = feeling
  • efferent (“carry from”): carry information away from CNS (ie. motor)
    *effect = affecting other things in environment
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32
Q

describe the terminology used to describe the collection of neuronal bodies (somas)

A
  • gray matter: neuronal bodies in the CNS
  • nucleus: mass of neuronal bodies in the CNS
  • ganglion: collection of neuronal bodies in the PNS
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33
Q

define gray matter

A

neuronal bodies in the CNS

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34
Q

define nucleus

A

mass of neuronal bodies in the CNS

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35
Q

define ganglion

A

ollection of neuronal bodies in the PNS

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36
Q

describe the terminology used to describe the collection of axons

A
  • White matter: collection of axons in the CNS
  • Nerve: bundle of axons in the PNS
  • Tract: collection of axons with a common origin and destination in the CNS
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37
Q

define white matter

A

collection of axons in the CNS

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38
Q

define nerve

A

bundle of axons in the PNS

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39
Q

define tract

A

collection of axons with a common origin and destination in the CNS

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40
Q

compare the location of grey/white matter in spinal cord vs brain

A

spinal cord has grey matter on centre and white on outside, opposite for brain

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41
Q

describe CSF

A

*cerebrospinal fluid
- produced by choroid plexus found within the brain
- circulates throughout the CNS
- absorbed into venous system
Functions:
- protection
- buoyancy
- excrete waste products
- exocrine medium

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42
Q

describe the ventricles

A
  • filled with CSF
  • 4 of them: 1st and 2nd are lateral ventricles, third is lower, and 4th lower (between brainstem and the cerebellum) separated by an aqueduct
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43
Q

describe the lateral ventricles

A

largest cavities
- also called 1st and 2nd ventricles

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44
Q

describe the 3rd and 4th ventricles

A
  • connected via cerebral aqueduct
  • 3rd ventricle is between 2 halves of diencephalon
  • 4th ventricle posterior to pons & medulla, but anterior to the cerebellum (continues with central canal of spinal cord)
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45
Q

how is the brain generally divided?

A

forebrain/midbrain/hindbrain

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46
Q

list the structures in the forebrain

A

telencephalon (cerebrum)
diencephalon

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47
Q

list the structures in the hindbrain

A
  • cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata
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48
Q

describe the telencephalon/cerebrum

A

largest part of human brain (2 cerebral hemispheres)
- cerebral cortex (outer layer)
- white matter (3 groupings)
- basal ganglia
- amygdala
- hippocampus
*responsible for a variety of tasks

49
Q

what tasts is telencephalon/cerebrum responsible for?

A
  • higher order thinking/reasoning
  • analyse sensory input and command motor output
  • memory and emotion
50
Q

describe the 3 major white matter systems

A

axons extend from developing forebrain to other parts of nervous system
- cortical white matter (axons of the cerebral cortex)
- corpus callosum (bridge between left/right hemispheres)
- internal capsule (links brain to brain stem - axons coming together and coming down to brain stem)

51
Q

describe the diencephalon

A
  • a little deeper inside
    Thalamus
  • gateway to cerebral cortex
  • (infofrom eye/ear/skin etc. goes through thalamus) via the internal capsule
    Hypothalamus
  • roles in a variety of autonomic functions and hormone release
52
Q

anytime we have a synapse, there is a reason for that synapse. Why?

A
  • if we wanter to send info straight to a destination, we wouldn’t have a synapse
  • thalamus does a lot of manipulation of info, key in up/downregulating different senses
53
Q

describe the midbrain

A
  • contains ascending/descending pathways between cortex, brain stem, and spinal cord (note cerebral aqueduct in centre)
  • tectum & tegmentum
    *still plays an important part in voluntary control of movement
54
Q

describe the tectum

A
  • in midbrain
  • receive sensory information from eye/ear
55
Q

describe the tegmentum

A
  • in midbrain
  • contains the substantia nigra (black substance) and red nucleus which help to control voluntary movement (these are 2 groupings of neurons)
56
Q

name the 3 important structures in the hindbrain

A

cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata

57
Q

describe the cerebellum

A

*hindbrain
- most posterior
- movement control centre (specifically fine movement control)

58
Q

describe the pons

A

*hindbrain
- most superior/rostral, also anterior
- switchboard connecting cerebellum and cerebral cortex

59
Q

describe the medulla oblongata

A
  • most inferior/caudal
  • autonomic processes (breathing, blood pressure, etc.) *the lower you go, the more automated you get
  • also, relays information to thalamus
    *big point of axon crossover
60
Q

4th ventricle arises from the _

A

cerebral aqueduct

61
Q

what are the meddulary pyramids

A

the point of decussation/axon crossover

62
Q

describe the spinal cord in terms of matter and location

A
  • white matter in outer layer (superficial)
  • gray matter inside (deep)
  • spinal canal - extension of 4th ventricle (CSF needs to flow through)
63
Q

Which structure is this: most superior structure in hindbrain and anterior to 4th ventricle. Switchboard connecting cerebellum and cerebral cortex

A

pons

64
Q

What structure is this? Most inferior structure of hindbrain and lays anterior to 4th ventricle. Involved in autonomic processes and relaying information to thalamus

A

medulla
*also contains medulla pyramids which allow axons to cross over (decussation).

65
Q

which structure is the most posterior structure and is the movement control centre?

A

cerebellum

66
Q

what structures maximize surface area in the cerebral cortex?

A

gyri (bumbs), sulco (grooves), and fissures (deep grooves)

67
Q

describe the central sulcus

A

*splitting in frontal plane
- separates pre and postcentral gyrus
- precentral gyrus - voluntary movement centre (lasy sendout of motor is here)
- postcentral gyrus - somatic sensation (first info is coming in here)

68
Q

describe the lateral fissure

A
  • located superior to superior temporal gyrus
  • superior temporal gyrus: hearing
69
Q

what are the 4 primary lobes in the cerebral cortex?

A
  • frontal
  • parietal (central sulcus)
  • temporal (lateral fissure)
  • occipital
70
Q

list the areas of the frontal lobe

A
  • prefrontal cortex
  • premotor & supplementary motor area (Broddman’s ^)
  • primary motor cortex (M1/broddman’s 4)
71
Q

describe the prefrontal cortex

A
  • executive function - higher cognitive processes for planning and organizing thoughts, speech, and behavious
  • attention: can directly or inderectly influence movement
  • personality and social behaviour
    *higher-order thinking
72
Q

what maps the brain into different sensory/motor and association areas?

A

Broddman’s map

73
Q

what case study helps us understand the prefrontal cortex better?

A

finneas gage
- metal pole went through prefrontal cortex
- alive but personality different, has issues controlling emotions, more childish, change in social behaviour, issues with social attention

74
Q

describe the premotor & supplementary motor area

A

*b’s 6
- preparation of the body for movement
(info goes from prefrontal>premotor>primary motor cortex)

75
Q

describe the primary motor cortex

A

*brodmann’s 4
- precentral gyrus
- generates neural impulses for movement
- somatotopic motor map
(info can be sent out down spinal cord out to muscles to execute the action)

76
Q

describe the somatotopic motor map

A
  • rough overview of motor organization
  • splitting down area 4
  • the larger something is, the more neurons we have devoted to the brain (ex. hand is larger because we need a lot of motor control and fine motor control, legs are smaller cause more gross motor pattern)
77
Q

if we put an electrode on an area on the somatotopic motor map, what can we expect?

A
  • fire signals, doesn’t necessarily mean we can control that area but would expect to have some activation of that area
    *not 1-1 relationship, not mapped perfectly in cortex
    but gives good picture
78
Q

list the areas of the parietal lobe

A
  • somatosensory cortex (s1 or b’s 1-3)
  • posterior parietal cortex
79
Q

describe the somatosensory cortex

A
  • postcentral gyrus
  • primary area for processing somatic sensations
  • somatotopic sensory map
80
Q

describe the posterior parietal cortex

A
  • integrating sensory information
  • object recognition, spatial relationships, etc.
  • contributes to planning and organizing action
    ex. reach into bag and can identify an object based on tactile sensation
81
Q

describe what happens in the occipital lobe

A
  • visual cortex, processes visual information
    *first point of processing starts back here and gets sent to other places
82
Q

describe what happens in the temporal lobe & what cortexs are included

A
  • auditory cortex (processes auditory info)
  • inferotemporal cortex (visual processing and object recognition)
83
Q

describe object recognition

A

visual info passed from visual cortex to inferotemporal cortex
- quickly and easily identify objects
- don’t fully understand yet (how humans do this so well)
- artificial tech (face recognition, took a long time to develop)

84
Q

the thalamus is part of the

A

diancephalon

85
Q

describe the location/structure and main function of the thalamus

A
  • sagittal view = duck’s head (hypothalamus is beak)
  • 3rd ventricle is between 2 halves
    *link between sensory info and cerebrum
86
Q

describe the function of the thalamus in more detail

A
  • previously thought to just be relay - more than that!
  • processes (excites/inhibits) and directs to specific areas (air traffic controller)
  • highly integrated with cerebellum and basal ganglia with cortex
  • axons travel through internal capsule
87
Q

what real-world comparison similar to the thalamus was brought up in class

A

air traffic controller
- thalamus is getting a bunch of sensory info coming up, it’s job is to direct that to specific areas and understand where it needs to go
- or celebrity agent (choosing which jobs are worth taking a look at)

88
Q

from a coronal view of the thalamus, we can see that _

A

it has left and right sides
*can divide it up further, there are a lot of nuclei in the thalamus (groupings of neurons that do similar things)

89
Q

The thalamus is divided into _

A

seperate nuclei that project to different areas in the cortex

90
Q

name the nucli the thalamus divides into

A
  • ventral posterior (VP) nucleus
  • ventral lateral (VL) nucleus
91
Q

describe the ventral posterior nucleus

A
  • projects to the postcentral gyrus
    *sends sensory info up to postcentral gyrus
92
Q

describe the ventral lateral nucleus

A
  • projects to precentral gyrus
  • receives input from basal ganglia (bit of a loop, helps finetune some signals)
    primary motor cortex, where the precentral gyrus is, should be sending info out for motor commandssending motor info
93
Q

define the basal ganglia

A

group of subcortical nuclei which supports the selection and initiation of movements, while preventing unwanted movements (among other things)

94
Q

the basal ganglia involves nuclei in the _

A

telencephalon, diencephalon (forebrain) and midbrain
*group of neurons in the CNS
*work together to help select and initiate movements, prevent unwanted ones

95
Q

why is the basal ganglia important in parkinson’s?

A

if there is damage here, makes it difficult to initiate movements and to select the right movements

96
Q

when deciding what we need to do based on environment, the cortex goes to _, which goes to _

A

premotor
- beforesent out, will loop down to basal ganglia as consultation
- thalamus

97
Q

the basal ganglia has 4 main nuclei, name them

A

striatum, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra

98
Q

describe the striatum

A
  • horn-like thing
  • includes caudate nucleus and putamen
  • where info is coming first, then globus pallidus
99
Q

describe the globus pallidus

A
  • internal & external segment
  • gets sent out to thalamus but along with it gets input from the subthalamic nucleus
100
Q

describe the subthalamic nucleus

A
  • helps regulate movement
  • below the thalamus
101
Q

describe the substantia nigra

A
  • helps regulate movement - dopaminergic neurons
  • degeneration in parkinson’s disease
102
Q

what are the 3 kinds of white matter?

A
  • cortical white matter
  • left internal capsule
  • corpus callosum
103
Q

describe the pons

A
  • ventral to 4th ventricle in the hindbrain
  • relays cortical info to cerebellum
  • pontine reticular info
    (important for respiration, tast and sleep: as well as postural control.)
  • many ascending and descending tracts carrying sensory and motor information (superhighway)
104
Q

describe the cerebellum

A
  • “little brain”
  • most dorsal aspect of the hindbrain
  • has folia (like gyri) and lobules (like lobes)
  • vermis separates left and right hemisphere (like corpus callosum)
  • deep cerebellar nuclei relay info out
    *finetuning things like with cortex/basal ganglia
105
Q

what are purkinje cells

A

main cells we have in the cerebellum
- massive network of dendrites
- receive a ton of info, send it out in one axon
- a lot of processing, coordinate and finetune this
*loss + damage of these = loss in coordination (ataxia)

106
Q

damage to the cerebellum leads to _

A

uncoordinated movements (ataxia)
- ex. finger to nose test, lacks finetuning/ a little bit off

107
Q

what case study describes what happens in cerebellum? What’s a real life example of how we use this knowledge?

A
  • someone with alcoholic cerebellar degenerative problems
  • degeneration in cerebellum after 30 yrs of korean hard liquor
  • normal cognitive and mental state, but ataxic movement
    *why we do sobriety tests, alcohol stops cerebellum from doing it’s job
108
Q

list the components of the medulla

A
  • medullary pyramids
  • medial lemniscus
  • vestibular nucleus
  • dorsal column nuclei
109
Q

describe the medulla

A

most caudal portion of hindbrain
- medullary pyramids, medial lemniscus, vestibular nucleus

110
Q

describe the medullary pyramids

A
  • bundles of motor axons
  • primary point of motor decussation (crossover, motor info doing down, sensory up, axons cross over in pyramids)
111
Q

describe the medial lemniscus

A
  • bundles of sensory axons
  • coming from periphery/tactile
  • going through medial lemniscus (bundles of sensory axons)
112
Q

describe the vestibular nucleus

A

integrates information necessary for balance
*info being integrated from sensors in ears

113
Q

describe the dorsal column nuclei

A
  • primary point of sensory decussation
  • joins up with medial lemniscus to create the dorsal column-medial lemniscus (DCML) pathway
114
Q

the spinal cord has _ vertrebrae and _ spinal nerves

A

33 vertebrae, 31 spinal nerves
*not 1-1!
- have 7 cervical vertebrae with nerves on either side =8
- throughout the thoracic, lumbar, sacral, pretty easy 1-1
- in the coccyx where we are fusing a lot of these together, we only have 1 nerve

115
Q

what 5 vertebrae can we landmark?

A

c2- first bony point
c7 - most prominent
t8 - bottom of sternum
t12 - bottom of ribs
l4/5 - top of iliac crests
*very commonfor nerve/disk issues

116
Q

describe the spinal cord

A

spinal nerve splits into 2 roots (dorsal - sensory, ventral = motor)
- grey matter on inside
- gray matter (dorsal, ventral, and lateral horns
- white matter, axons running up and down (dorsal, ventral and lateral columns

117
Q

the spinal cord has ascending sensory pathways and descending motor pathways, describe the ascending

A

ascending motor
- dorsal column (touch, proprioception)
- spinothalamic tract (pain, temp)

118
Q

the spinal cord has ascending sensory pathways and descending motor pathways, describe the descending

A

descending motor
- lateral motor pathways (commands for voluntary movements)
- ventromedial motor pathways (posture and reflex movements)

Neural Control of Human Movement (8 decks)

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