topic one theories of religion Flashcards
substantive definitions
- focus on what religion is by identifying its core beliefs
- Weber defines religion as belief in a superior or supernatural power that cannot be scientifically explained
- are exclusivist
issues with substantive definitons
- narrow definitions: excludes religions that do not focus on the supernatural
- western bias: focuses on monotheistic religions
functional definitions
- focus on what religion does for individuals and society
- define religion based on its social or psychological functions e.g Durkheim saw religion as creating social cohesion and maintaining solidarity
- are inclusive
issues with functional
- too broad so can include non-religious practices such as nationalism
social constructionist definitions
- focus on how individuals and societies define religion rather than imposing a fixed definition
- Aldridge (2013) argues that even organisations like Scientology, which some governments reject as a religion, are seen as religions by their followers
define sacred
things that are set apart and are forbidden - they evoke feelings of awe, fear and wonder
- e.g. holy texts, religious symbols
define profane
things which have no special significance and are simply mundane
How does Durkeim use the sacred vs the profane to explain religion
- religion does not exist to worship a God, but rather to worship the sacred which respresents society itself
Who used Totemism to explain the role of religion in society
Durkheim
Describe Totemism
a form of religion practiced by Indigenous groups in Australia, where each group or clan adopts a particular symbol or totem which they consider to be sacred
Why did Durkheim use Totemism
he saw it as the most basic form of religion
Why is Totemism ultimately a worship of society
-the totem serves as a representation of the collective consciousness,
-when individuals worship the totem = worshiping the collective moral authority that binds them together as a society.
What does religion act as
a conservative force
Why does religion act as a conservative force
-totemic rituals reinforce social cohesion as members come together = collective experience = feel more closely bonded to each other and their values
-in this way, religion preserves the status quo by ensuring that individuals conform to the values and norms that the group deems important.
how does religion perform a cognitive function
-durkhiem argues religion provides a framework for understanding the world
- religion creates the same categories by which individuals can organise their shared experiences = can structure knowledge
- religion is the origin of human thought, reason and science
criticise Durkheim
sacred vs profane
-Worsley argues the boundaries between the sacred and the profane are now blurred e.g. the cross in a Church setting is a sacred symbol but in everyday life it is often worn as a fashion accessory by people who ar enot religioius
criticise Durkheim
small scale vs large scale
his theory cannot be applied to larger scale societies:
-there may be more religious communities which may be in conflict
- therefore he only explains social integration within religious communities
how does Malinowski disagree with Durkheim
-religion reinforces social solidarity by performing psychological functions which benefit individuals not just society as a whole
psychoological functions
ways in which religion or other social practices help individuals cope with emotional stress, anxiety, and uncertainty
two situations where religion performs psychological functions
- where the outcome is important but uncertain
- at times of life crises
what study did M use to describe how religion helps when the outcome is important but uncertain (e.g.)
-studied the Trobriand Islanders and fishing:
-when lagoon fishing since it was safe and predictable there was no ritual
-when ocean fishing the islanders turned to religious rituals (canoe magic) to give them a sense of control and confidence as it was a dangerous activity
how does M explain the psychological function religion performs during life crises
- events such as birth, puberty death cause social disruption
- religion minimises this by offering rituals like funerals which encourage social solidarity amongst those who knew the deceased
who develops on Malinowski’s ideas
Parsons
two essential functions religion performs according to Parsons
- creates and legitimates society’s central values
- religion is the primary source of meaning
how does religion create and legitimise society’s central values
- provides a shared moral framework
- these values such as honesty and justice are influenced onto soceity through religious teachings
- this makes these values sacred to the rest of society and unquestionable
- this strengthens social order because individuals are more likely to conform to values they see as divinely ordained
how is it the primary source of meaning
- religion offers an explanation to fundamental questions about humanity and the world
- without religion, these unanswered questions could create existential anxiety, which might lead to instability in society
- e.g. Christianity explains suffering through the concept of divine testing or God’s plan
Durkheim introduced the concept of civil religion true or false
false it was Bellah
define civil religion
refers to a non-religious, national belief system that binds people together in a shared moral and cultural framework
What country did Bellah study and why
- American society
- to understand how it was so multi-faith but also unified
outline the function civil religion performs
- as it is a faith in the naition it unifies its members
- as a result, loyalty to the nation is seen as morally right –> patriotism
- instils a sense of shared identity through rituals or festivals e.g. national holidays for thanksgiving
criticise the functionalist view of belief
- Glock and Stark
- functionalism ignores conflicts between different religious groups in the same society
- e.g. Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland
- threatens social integration and undermines the perceived worship of society that functionalists claim
Marx argued that religion was a _____ in society
conservative force
define conservative force
an institution or beleif system which maintains the status quo and reinforces traditional values
according to Marx, what is the primary role of religion
reproduce, maintain and justify class inequality
how does religion operate as an ideological apparatus
- legitimises working class suffering by saying it is inevitable and legitimises the power of the ruling class by making their position to be divinely ordained
- they also persuade them by promoting a message that their suffering is virtuous and they will be rewarded in the afterlife
- causes a false class consciousness preventing the w/c to revolt
why does alienation mean the w/c turn to religion
- under capitalism workers do not own what they produce and have no control over the production process so have not freedom to express their creative nature
- instead in the division of labour, they are forced to endlessly repeat the same tasks
- these dehumanising conditions cause the proletariat to turn to religion
‘religion is the ____ of the masses’
opium
how does religion act as an opiate
- religion provides compensators such as promises of an afterlife
- this merely dulls the pain by creating an illusory happiness that distracts the w/c from identifying to cause of their suffering - maintains false clase consciousness
- much like opium which fails to deal with the cause but offers consolation
camel quote
it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the Kingdom of Heaven
= religions present suffering and poverty as a virtue to be accepted
do the ruling class directly benefit from religion if so why
- yes
- can help to justify their economic and political beleifs so they can continue to exploit for their private gain
criticise marxism
- fails to acknowledge free will as it is still a structural theory
- Marcuse: secularisation reduces the role of religion but now commodity fetishism and a new God of consumerism will maintian the w/c position of not revolting
4 pieces of evidence to suggest religion is patriarchal
- religious organisations
- places of worship
- sacred texts
- religious laws and customs
how do religious organisations show evidence of patriarchy
- are usually male-dominated
- e.g Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women to become priests which Armstrong sees this exclusion as evidence of women’s marginalisation
how do places of worship show evidence of patriarchy
- many places of worship have gender-segregated spaces, often placing men in more central or dominant positions.
- women’s participation may be restricted e.g. in Islam mentruating women are not allowed to touch the Qur’an - Holm describes this as the devaltuation of women in religion
how do sacred texts show evidence of patriarchy
- largely feature the doings of male gods/prophets thereby establishing male authority in religious settings
- they are also often interpreted by men
how do religious laws and customs show evidence of patriarchy
- they may give women fewer rights than men e.g. dress codes or divorce
- religious influences on cultural norms also place restrictions on women e.g. the Catholic Church bans abortion to regulate women’s traditional domestic role
what does Woodhead argue
the exclusion of women from Catholic priesthood is evidence of the Church’s unease with female emancipation
on the other hand what do some feminists argue
- Armstrong and El Saawadi argue that women have not always been subordinate to men within religion
what does Armstrong argue
- early religions places women at the center
- about 6000 years ago, fertility cults and female priesthood was found throughout the Middle East
- the rise of monotheistic religions saw the establishment of a single, all-powerful male god
- the misuse of sacred texts rather than religion itself is responsible for patriarchy
what does El Saawadi argue
- while religion is now used to oppress women, it is not the direct cause of their subordination
- the emergence of a patriarchal society over the past few thousand years has influenced religion
- men have interpreted religion in ways which reinforce patriarchy, thereby leading to women’s oppression
who coined the concept religious forms of feminism and why and define it
- Woodhead
- to highlight that not all religion is patriarchal
- religious forms of feminism are ways in which women use religion to gain freedom and greater respect
two examples where women use religion
- Gilliat-Ray points out how British Muslim women use the hijab to gain parental consent to enter further education/employment without being condemned as immodest
- Brusco found that in Colombian Pentecostal groups while there is strong belief in traditional gender roles, there are beliefs that men should respect women which given the women power to influence men’s behaviour
