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eBMS2021 > TOPIC E: Dev Biology > Flashcards

TOPIC E: Dev Biology Flashcards

1
Q

What are descriptive studies

A

Looking at expression patterns of mRNAs, non coding RNAs and proteins, fate mapping

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2
Q

What are manipulative studies

A

Altering a system and observing the effects, gene knockout, transplantation, adding a drug

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3
Q

What is fate mapping

A

Based on lineage tracing where a labelling group is added to cells of an embryo to see what they become in adult tissue.

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4
Q

Invertebrates animal model

A

Fly and round worm

ADV
Easy to keep and modify, rapid life cycle

DIS
Largely differing anatomy to humans

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5
Q

Lower vertebrates animal model

A

Zebrafish and clawed frog

ADV
easy to keep and manipulate, can add factors to environment (water)

DIS
Distant from humans

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6
Q

Higher vertebrate animal model chicken

A

Chicken

ADV
not in utero easy to manipulate

DIS
Longer life cycle

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7
Q

Higher vertebrate animal model mouse

A

Mouse

ADV
same organs and diseases as humans, easy to maintain

DIS
Embryos in utero, can be expensive, some phenotypes differ to human

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8
Q

What is an epithelial mesenchymal transition

A

Where an epithelial cell becomes a mesenchymal cell to enhance development

Less polarised
Motile not attached to other cells or membrane
Lie within matrix

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9
Q

what is cell fate

A

Developmental destination of a cell if left undisturbed in the embryo

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10
Q

What is specification and determination of cell fate

A

Specification: Cell fate is biased but can still be reversed if manipulated

Determination: Specified to form a specific cell type irreversibly, will differentiate autonomously if placed in different region

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11
Q

What is cell fate restriction governed by

A

Cells genome (gene expression)

Cells history (factors it has been exposed to)

Interaction with neighbours

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12
Q

What is pattern formation

A

The developmental process where cells acquire different identities depending on their relative spatial positions in the embryo

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13
Q

What are the steps of pattern formation

A 
Cell proliferation
Cell migration
Changes in cell shape and size
Cell differentiation
Cell interaction (other cells and ECM)
Apoptosis
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14
Q

What is pattern formation influenced by

A

Differential gene expression

Signalling between cells

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15
Q

How does differential gene expression influence pattern formation

A

Interaction between transcription factors inside cells and signalling molecules from neighbouring cells cause differential gene expression

Changes in cell behaviour

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16
Q

What are the regulatory elements and transcription factors controlling differential gene expression

A

Promoters: initiate gene expression

Enhancers: Bind activating factors

Inhibitors: bind inhibitory factors

Transcription factors bind to regulatory elements and play a role in gene expression

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17
Q

Explain what the HOX gene cluster is

A

Homeobox DNA sequence is found within genes involved in anatomical development and morphogenesis

Homeobox genes clustered together are called HOX genes

4 hox clusters (abcd)

Collinear with position along chromosome

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18
Q

What is a homeotic transformation

A

Where a body part develops as a different body part due to mutation of HOX genes

Sometimes the overlap of HOX genes prevents this from occurring in humans (known as functional redundancy)

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19
Q

How does signalling influence pattern formation

A

Induction is a change in cell fate due to signals sent from other cells. Limited repertoire used over and over.

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20
Q

What is lateral inhibition

A

Where cells send inhibitory signals to neighbouring cells to alter behaviour.

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21
Q

What are the 2 types of signalling cascades induction paracrine factors can cause

A

Protein kinase activity (FGF and TGF-beta)

Second messenger systems (Hedgehog and Wnt)

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22
Q

Outline fibroblast growth factor pathway

A

FGF activates Receptor tyrosine kinase MAPK pathway

on nucleus, activates transcription factors

23
Q

Outline hedgehog pathway

A

Hedgehog binds to patched receptor which activates SMO to move into cilium so Gli is not broken down and transcriptional activation can occur

24
Q

Outline Wnt pathway

A

Wnt binds to a frizzled receptor causing destruction complex to bind and be inhibited. beta-caterin can then act as a transcription factor

25
Outline transforming growth factor - beta pathway
TGF-beta binds to serine/threonine kinase receptor. Activates Smad proteins which target gene expression
26
What are morphogens
Secreted, diffusible molecule that can influence fat of a field of neighbouring cells via a concentration gradient changes in dose changes the genes activated
27
What is morphogenesis
Organisation of form and shape of cells and tissues.
28
what factors affect morphogenesis
Direct cell-cell adhesion Cell migration
29
How does direct cell-cell adhesion affect morphogenesis
Cells develop differential affinity to sort with similar cells boundaries created by cell adhesion molecules
30
What are cadherins
Calcium dependent adhesion molecules E-cadherins are on most early embryonic cells, and later in epithelial tissues. N-cadherins are on neural cells P-cadherins are on placental cells
31
How does cell migration affect morphogenesis
EMT causes morphogenesis by changes in characteristics Change in polarity Interaction with ECM Motile force from actin and myosin
32
What are the major phases of embryonic development
``` Fertilisation Cleavage Blastocyst formation Implantation in uterus Gastrulation Neurulation Growth and organogenesis ```
33
What is regulative ability of an embryo
Regulation of production to ensure normal structures are formed e.g. If some cells are removed, the embryo will ramp up production to remake the cells
34
Explain cleavage
Rapid cell division without size expansion The individual cells are called blastomeres and undergo compaction Tightly joined cells form the morula Blastocyst forms with trophoblast and inner cell mass
35
What are the trophoblast and ICM
Trophoblast is the outer layer of cells which becomes the cyto- and syncytio- trophoblast and then part of the placenta. The ICM becomes the epiblast and hypoblast which will later become the embryo and yolk sac
36
How are cells determined to become trophoblast or ICM
Inside outside hypothesis: Cells on inside become ICM and outside become trophoblast Cell polarity model: If a cell divides parallel to zona pellucida it will become the trophoblast, if it divides perpendicular it becomes the ICM
37
What are the key transcription factors in the blastocyst
Oct4 for ICM formation, expression of pluripotency Cdx2 for trophoblast formation Nanog for epiblast formation Gata6 for hypoblast formation
38
What is the gastrula
This is where the epiblast has become the 3 germ layers (a trilaminar disc)
39
What is the primitive streak
Ridge of cells along the axis of the embryo its formation marks the start of gastrulation
40
What is the anterior visceral endoderm (AVE)
An extra embryonic tissue made of specialised cells in the hypoblast
41
Explain the starting signalling process of gastrulation
Together the primitive streak and AVE signal for gastrulation BMP4 comes in and instructs cells of epiblast to make Wnt and Nodal. AVE instructs epiblast to make Letty 1 and cerberus which restrict Wnt and Nodal to the posterior pole, causing the primitive streak. At top of primitive streak is the node, which produces its own signals
42
Explain the movement of gastrulation through the primitive streak
Cells that pass through the node of the primitive streak will form part of the notochord, neural tube and head structures Cells passing through the rest of the streak will produce the germ layers Epiblast moves through, displacing hypoblast and first forming the endoderm and then the mesoderm, the remain epiblast cells become the ectoderm
43
What are the different types of potency
totipotent: make any cell type, zygote pluripotent: most cell types, inner cell mass multipotent: lineage restricted, germ layers unipotent: one cell type e.g. neurons
44
Examples of tissues from each of the germ layers
Ectoderm: epidermis, CNS, neural crest cells Mesoderm: Skeleton and muscles, dermis of skin Endoderm: Epithelial lining of GI tract and associated organs and lining of respiratory, excretory and reproductive tract
45
Where do the 4 main tissues of the body arise from
Epithelium (all) CT (mesodermal) muscle (mesodermal) nerve (ectodermal)
46
Outline neurulation
Production of the notochord and neural tube
47
Outline sonic hedgehog role in neurulation
Induction of the neural tube is by sonic hedgehog (Shh) signalling from the underlying notochord. Induces neural plate to form and fold into the neural tube
48
What are the 3 types of stem cells
Embryonic stem cells: from ICM Adult stem cells: from adult tissue iPSC: induced pluripotent stem cells due to reprogramming
49
What characteristics are proof of stem cell ability
expresses cell type specific markers in vitro behave as the desired cells in vivo Can self renew
50
Where can ASC be found
bone marrow, skin, gut and brain haematopoietic stem cell, multipotent, red and white blood cells mesenchymal stem cell, multipotent
51
What factors are used to produce iPSC
Oct4: activates Nanog for pluripotency C-Myc: opens chromatin accessible to Sox2, Oct4 and nanog Klf4 prevents cell death
52
What are the 2 types of cloning
Reproductive cloning: making a duplicate animal Therapeutic cloning: Disease therapy
53
What is somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
where the nucleus of an ovum replaced into a somatic cell. iPSC can skip this step

eBMS2021 (8 decks)

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