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Microbiology: Exam 2 > Topic D > Flashcards

Topic D Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is central dogma:
-what are main concepts?

A

source & order of all genetic information into function in organisms

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2
Q

-DNA is the…
-it is what to pass on the info?
-is what into?

A

-carrier of genetic information
-DNA is replicated to pass on the info
-is transcribed into mRNA

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3
Q

what is mRNA?
-what is it translated into?
-what are proteins?

A

-is the chemical messenger of information
-translated into protein
-proteins are the functional units of life that maintain it (structures, carriers, & enzymes).

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4
Q

where is DNA typically found in humans? where is RNA and protein?

A

-enclosed into nucleus and RNA and protein in cytosol

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5
Q

DNA cycle
what is replication?
-what is transcription?
-what is translation?

A

-needs to be replicated with high accuracy
-DNA to RNA
-RNA to protein; then restarts to replication through polymerase

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6
Q

what do proteins impact?

A

muscles, skin, hair, fingernails, claws (collagen, keratin), pepsin (digestive enzyme in stomach), insulin

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7
Q

what are amino acids?
-how many are there? essential?
-each one is?
-some like?
-some?
a chain of a.a is called?

A

smallest unit of proteins
there are only 20, 9 essential ones
each one is different
some like water and dissolve in it
some fear water separate from it
a chain of amino acid is a polypeptide

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8
Q

what determines the type of amino acid is present?
-what are the different structures of proteins?

A

-the R-group determines the type of a.a
-primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

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9
Q

primary proteins:
-structure?
-arrangement?

A

-sequence of a.a the is the backbone of a peptide chain/protein

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10
Q

secondary protein: aka?
-arrangement?
-held by?
-how are polypeptide chains arranged?
-where are H bonds?
-where are R-groups?
-typically?

A

-aka alpha helix
-3D arrangement of a.a with polypeptide chain in a corkscrew shape
-held by H-bonds between NH and C=O
-polypeptides are arranged side by side
-H bonds form between chains
-R groups of extend above and below the sheet
-typically of fibrous proteins like silk

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11
Q

tertiary structure:
-shape?
-cross links between?
-examples

A

-shape of a protein due to function group interaction from each chain
-cross links between R groups of a.a in chain
-disulfide, ionic, H bonds, hydrophobic

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12
Q

quaternary structure:
-what is it?
-example?

A

-protein assembly with two or more chains
-hemoglobin = 4 polypeptides chains

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13
Q

globular vs fibrous

A

globular is spherical, consists of insulin, hemoglobin, enzymes, antibodies
fibrous is long, thin fibers like hair, wool ,skin, nails made up of collagen

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14
Q

denaturation:
-what is it?
-examples and their function

A

-disruption of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary protein structure
-heat/organics: break apart H-bonds and disrupt hydrophobic attractions
-acids/bases: break H-bonds between R-groups and ionic bonds
-heavy metal ions: react w S-S bonds to form solids
-agitation: stretches chain until bonds break through shaking

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15
Q

denaturation in everyday life

A

-boiling an egg
-wiping skin w alcohol
-cooking food to destroy E-coli
-heat used to cauterize blood vessels
-autoclave sterilize instruments
-milk heated to make yogurt

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16
Q

what are nucleotides?

A

recurring monomeric units of nucleic acids (which make genetic material)
-nucleic aids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides

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17
Q

what are genes?
what are genome?
-how many cells do humans have?
-how many pairs of chromosomes?
-how long is human DNA?
-how many DNA subunits are there?

A

-genes are sequence of DNA nucleotides that are for one protein (trait)
-genome is collection of genes in an organism
-around 40-80 trillion cells
-23 pairs of chromosomes
-2 meters of DNA
-3 billion DNA subunits

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18
Q

e-coli cell:
-how many chromosomes?
-what size is it?
-how many bases?
-how many genes/proteins?

A

-one chromosome
-1.8um
-5.2 million bases
-5000 genes=5000 proteins

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19
Q

central dogma:
-DNA info is?
-DNA leads?
-proteins are?

A

-DNA info is in the form of specific sequences of bases along the DNA strands
-DNA leads to specific traits by dictating the synthesis of proteins through sequences of DNA called genes
-proteins are links between genotype & phenotype

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20
Q

microbial genetics:
-inheritance is how?
-RNA does what?
-nucleotide is made up of?

A

-how traits (proteins+genes) are passed on in subsequent generations
-RNA decodes stuff
-nitrogenous base + carbohydrates + 3 phosphate

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21
Q

DNA sugar:
-DNA structure allows?
-what is the sugar called?
-how many nitrogenous bases?

A

-allows efficient storage of genetic info
-deoxyribose because it lacks an oxygen on C2 of pentose
-four bases

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22
Q

where do the phosphate group attach in DNA?
-where do bases attach to? what are the two types?

A

-1 to 3 will attach to C5
-attach at C1: purines (adenine & guanine) and pyrimidines (cytosine & thymine)

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23
Q

what are the properties of DNA?

A

-polarity, strandedness, anti-parallelicity and complementary

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24
Q

what determines strandedness qualities?

A

-bases: A,T,C,G

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25
Q

dehydration synthesis DNA

A

-double stranded, sugar-phosphate backbone, polar (2 different ends), complementary

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26
Q

-DNA polymerization
-polarity

A

nucleotides bond together by dehydration reactions
-polarity: results of polymerization is a single strand of DNA with two different ends, OH on last nucleotide, phosphate on first

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27
Q

strandedness:
-what is it and its function?

A

-double stranded of DNA for stability and protection

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28
Q

what’s Chargaff’s Rule?

A

-the number of A = number of T
number of G = number of C
-G-C is stronger pair pair due to 3 H bonding
-A-T only has 2 H bonds

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29
Q

antiparallel

A

two strands of DNA base-pair w each other
-template strand
-coding strand
5’ to 3’ or 3’ to 5’

30
Q

chromosome:
-isolates in?
-eukaryotic chromosome is? how many copies presented?
-what kind of proteins do eukaryotes use? like?

A

-isolates in DNA
-eukaryotic chromosome is linear. there are two copies present (diploid)
-DNA double stranded helix is extremely long
-positive charged proteins like histones which wind double stranded helix around to compact it

31
Q

what is super coiled?
-when dividing is about to happen, what do chromosomes look like?

A

-winding up a lot of chromosomes to eventually a compacted DNA (chromosome)
-looks like an X

32
Q

what percent is extra-nuclear DNA
-how are inactive DNA activated?

A

-5 percent
-activated by complexes w nuclear DNA products
-used for replication of organelles: mitochondria, chloroplasts, plasmids (fungi, protista, prokaryotes)

33
Q

prokaryotic:
-contains?
-chromosomes is in?
-use?
-structure?
exceptions?

A

-contains archaea and bacteria
-chromosomes in cytoplasm bc no nucleus, nuclei region
-prokaryotes use histone like proteins (HU) to wind DNA around to compact it
-is circular, and has a single copy (haploid)
-exception: multiple copies of X some and separate X somes (linear + circular)

34
Q

plasmids:
-what are they?
-only in what?
-composed of?
types?

A

-independently replicating, only in prokaryotes, small portions of DNA (5%) of entire genome, non-essential, advantageous
-fertility (F) plasmids: conjugation: gene transfer
-resistance (R) plasmids: antibiotic resistance conferral
-bacteriocin (B) plasmids: bacteriocin, destroy competition
-virulence (V) plasmids: confer ability to become pathogenic

35
Q

DNA function:
-holds?
-genes are?
-essentail

A

-holds blueprints for construction of all proteins made by cells , sections=genes around 25k in humans
-genes are instructions to build specific products like proteins
-essential that when cell divides, each daughter cell gets an exact copy of the entire set of chromosomes
-missing genes=cell death

36
Q

replication bases:
-what happens?
-parent—>
-each original…
-produce?
-each daughter

A

-one cell separates into two
-parent into daughter cells
-dna must be replicated faithfully for both daughter cells
-each original strand is a template
-produce two new alternating complementary strands
-each daughter inherits one new strand, one old strand: semi-conservation replication

37
Q

replication steps:
-what unwinds the dsDNA template?
-DNA helicase does?
-DNA polymerases?
-DNA pol catalyzes?

A

-DNA gyrase + topoisomerase
-opens dsDNA, origin of replication
-DNA polymereases (2) reads opened strands
-catalyzes synthesis of new strands

38
Q

replication error probability?
how long does it take to replicate six feet of DNA?

A

-1/100,000
one month

39
Q

what does mRNA do?
-what does transcription do?

A

-mRNA decodes blueprint/DNA and turns DNA to RNA
-transcription: RNA polymerase uses DNA blueprint and transcribes the info into a language the ribosomes can understood. only reads individual genes, not the entire code

40
Q

what do ribosomes do acorrding to genes?

A

-build proteins

41
Q

what is rRNA?
tRNA?
mRNA?

A

-rRNA: ribosomal RNA part of the structure of ribosome (protein-enzyme to build new protein)
-tRNA: transfer RNA functions as helper to bring correct amino acids to ribosomes to build new proteins
-mRNA: messenger RNA product of transcription of DNA coding strand aka transcript

42
Q

RNA transcription:
-signals?
-terminator?

A

-the promoters at the site of transcription
-signal for RNA polymerase to stop process

43
Q

what does tRNA contain?
-what is rRNA?

A

-contains anti-codon
-several RNA fragments combined with small proteins to form ribosome

44
Q

what kind modifies their RNA and what doesn’t?

A

eukaryotes modify their RNA and prokaryotes don’t

45
Q

capping?
splicing?
polyadenylation?

A

-capping: RNA adding G which protects structure
-splicing: cutting/editing a piece of RNA which creates a variation, exons are used
-polyadenylation: adding A/s at the end which protects RNA

46
Q

capping?
splicing?
polyadenylation?

A

-capping: RNA adding G which protects structure
-splicing: cutting/editing a piece of RNA which creates a variation, exons are used
-polyadenylation: adding A/s at the end which protects RNA

47
Q

what is translation?

A

process where ribosomes read the mRNA transcript and make a protein based on the transcript
-it is energy dependent by BTP

48
Q

what reads mRNA?

A

ribosomes which reads mRNA nucleotides at a time (codon)
-ribosomes build amino acids via tRNA

49
Q

how many possible codon combinations are there?

A

64 combinations

50
Q

what is redundancy?

A

backup codes incase read incorrectly

51
Q

translation is what site?
what site is initiation?

A

-site A which accepts a.a through tRNA
-site E which exit amino acids to protein
polymerize links chain

52
Q

what does tRNA carry?
step 1
2
3
4

A

-carry amino acids
1. tRNA + a.a goes in and out
2. polymerizes
3. attaches to chain, empty
4. moves and kicks out old one

53
Q

summarize:
-replication?
-transcription?
-translation?

A

-replication: duplicates cell’s genome, begins at origin, ends at origin or end of a linear DNA molecule
-transcription: synthesizes RNA, begins at promoter, ends at terminator
-translation: synthesizes polypeptides, begins at AUG, start codon, ends at UAA, UAG or UGA stops codon

54
Q

regulation of genetic expression:
-production of?
-constitutive?
-facultative?
-regulation?
-induction
-repression?

A

-productions of protein from RNA
-active 75%, meaning they’re being used
-expressed as needed, dont use these proteins
-what proteins to build and what not
-induction is building
-repression is stopping building

55
Q

what are operons?

A

they are only found in prokaryotes and produce a bunch of genes at the same time
ex: lactose, tryptophan
what makes up a operon: promoter-operator-structural genes

56
Q

lactose operon:
-what is it?
-promotor vs operator?
-how many genes are expressed?
-if glucose is present?
-if glucose isn’t present?
-if lactose is present and glucose is off?

A

-it is inducible, turn it on
-promotor is blocked by repressor and operator is constitutively expressed, shut down genes
-3 genes which transport & catabolism of lactose
-if glucose is present, operon is off
-if glucose isn’t present, operon is still off
-if lactose is present and glucose is off, then operon is on

57
Q

tryptophan operon

A

is repressible, always on unless we don’t need it
inbolves 5 genes
produce 5 proteins to make Tryptophan
open is always blocked unless tryptophan isn’t available

58
Q

RISC:
-what does RISC stand for?
-in?
-what is it?
-what does it do?

A

-RNA-induced silencing complex
-in eukaryotes and viruses
-is micro RNA (miRNA) + proteins
-mess/interfere w protein expression

59
Q

siRNA:
-what does it stand for?
-what is it?

A

-small interfering RNA
-synthetic, dsRNA, complexes with RISC, complementary sequences inhibiting DNA & RNA

60
Q

what is a mutation?
what kinds are there?

A

-any change from original DNA nucleotide sequence
-large, point and chromosomal

61
Q

large vs point mutations

A

-large: more than one nucleotide is affected
-point: one nucleotide is affected

62
Q

what is frameshift?
transposition?

A

-insertion, deletion, substitutions
-2 genes switch places with each other

63
Q

what is a silent mutation?

A

change in mRNA sequence which doesn’t change amino acid sequence of the protein

64
Q

what is missence mutation?

A

GAA to GUA, changes protein
-original sense got a mutation
-sickle cell anemia

65
Q

what happens after DNA mutates?

A

-change in mRNA sequence which causes a ribosome to find an early stop signal

66
Q

what is nonsense mutation?

A

cuts the strand short

67
Q

what is spontaneous mutation?

A

-error in replication, repair, recombination

68
Q

what is artificial mutation?

A

-physical and chemical mutation
-mutagens increase mutations by 10-100x
evolution selection to detect mutagens

69
Q

physical mutation:
-ionizing radiation
-non-ionizing radiation

A

-x-rays which break bonds
-UV

70
Q

chemical mutation:
examples

A

nucleotide analogs
nucleotide alternating chemicals
frameshift mutagens

Microbiology: Exam 2 (3 decks)

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