Topic 9 & 10 Flashcards
macro vs microsociology
macro sociology studies populations and social structures whereas micro sociology studies individual interactions and small scale face to face interactions
Functionalism
a perspective of thinking that analyses society on a macrosociological perspective and how each and examines the structures that make up a society and the contribution it makes to societal stability.
Symbolic Interactionism
focuses on small scale perspectives with small interactions between individuals. It explains how individuals act in society and can be expanded to look at the interactions of larger social groups to explain social change.
Social constructionism
observes how the interactions of individuals with their society and the world around them give meaning to otherwise worthless things and create the reality of society.
• Social constructionism is a perspective that focuses on how knowledge and experiences are not real, but exist because individuals and society give them meaning. This collective meaning provides the reality we live in. Ideas, like health and disease for example, are defined and shaped over time by society, and therefore subject to different cultural norms. The concept of the self (identity) is created by interactions with other people and our expectations of society.
Weak social constructionism
states that social constructs are dependent on two types of facts: Brute facts that do not rely on other bits of evidence Institutional facts which are created by social conventions and rely on other facts to have meaning and example money depends on paper to print on, society to assign value, etc
Strong social constructionism
states that the whole of reality is dependent on language and habits and that all knowledge is a social construct. It argues against brute facts and that humans have created everything we use to explain concepts and reality.
Exchange rational choice theory
has two parts.
◦ Rational choice theory: people are motivated to do things based on what is best for them.
◦ Exchange theory: this is an application of the rational choice theory onto societal interactions between individuals.
rational choice theory
as three core assumptions:
◦ Completeness – each option open to an individual can be ranked, and one is more desirable in the outcome than another.
◦ Transitivity – the most preferential option is greater than all possibilities regardless of how they are ranked in terms of outcome.
◦ Independence – When presented with another option, it would not change the rank of the original options.
•
Exchange theory
an application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Exchange theory treats society as a series of interactions between individuals such as those in a family, workplace or parenting so is micro-sociological in scale. assumes that people will seek to maximize their profits by seeking rewards and avoiding punishments. It also assumes that behavior that results in a reward is likely to be repeated, and the reward over time will have less value when repeated. Both exchange and rational choice theory also rely on the assumption that people have access to the information they need to make informed decisions on their behavior when considering the benefits and drawbacks. These models also assume that the standards people use to assess an interaction can change over time and are different from person to person when working on individuals.
Assimilation
the process by which an individual or group becomes part of a new culture.
Multiculturalism
the practice of valuing and respecting differences in culture.
Life-course theory
views aging as changes in social, psychological and biological processes with time
Age stratification theory
looks at age as a way of regulating behaviors of generation and activities.
Activity theory
examines the way roles and jobs change with age and the loss of social interactions at work needs to be replaced in older age to maintain well being.
Sex versus gender
Sex refers to a person’s assignment as male or female as determined by a person’s genotype (genetic makeup) and phenotype (observable traits, for example reproductive anatomy or sex hormones). The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines the development of male or female sex-specific traits; Gender, however, is the division of groups of people by associate roles, expectations, and stereotypes in a culture that is shaped by religious, political, legal, philosophical, linguistic, and other traditions. Gender is therefore defined as a social construct.
Malthusian theory
three factors would control the human population that exceeded the earth’s carrying capacity, or how many people can live in a given area considering the number of available resources. Malthus identified these factors as war, famine, and disease. They are countered by “preventive checks,” which also control the population but by reducing fertility rates; preventive checks include birth control and celibacy.
Zero population growth theory:
the environment, not specifically the food supply, will play a crucial role in the continued health of the planet’s population. The theory postulates that the human population is moving rapidly toward complete environmental collapse, as privileged people use up or pollute a number of environmental resources such as water and air. This theory advocates for a goal of zero population growth (ZPG), in which the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration.
Cornucopian theory
Asserts that human ingenuity can resolve any environmental or social issues that develop. As an example, it points to the issue of the food supply. If we need more food, the theory contends, agricultural scientists will figure out how to grow it, as they have already been doing for centuries.
Demographic transition theory
suggests that future population growth will develop along with a predictable four-stage model.
In Stage 1, birth, death, and infant mortality rates are all high, while life expectancy is short. As countries begin to industrialize, they enter Stage 2, where birthrates are higher while infant mortality and the death rates drop. Life expectancy also increases.
Stage 3 occurs once a society is thoroughly industrialized; birthrates decline, while life expectancy continues to increase. Death rates continue to decrease. In the final phase, Stage 4, we see the postindustrial era of society. Birth and death rates are low, people are healthier and live longer, and society enters a phase of population stability.
hyper-globalist perspective
focuses on how economies of countries become interlinked that the nation itself loses significance in the creation of a large global economy and society.
skeptical perspective
is critical of globalization and that third world countries are not being integrated into the global economy and do not have the same benefits as first world countries.
transformationalist perspective
argues that globalization causes new patterns of interdependent interactions, but the outcomes cannot be predicted with any certainty.
World-systems theory
a conflict theorist view for understanding the relationships between nations.
Urbanization
the process of a population shift from rural areas to cities.
Urbanization
the process of a population shift from rural areas to cities.
Caste systems
prescribe which social status was inherited developed independently in ancient societies all over the world, including the Middle East, Asia, and Africa.
Absolute poverty
refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries.
Relative poverty
explains poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context.
Social exclusion
occurs when individuals and communities are blocked from rights and opportunities that are available to others.
