Topic 8A Flashcards
Self-efficacy
a belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness. It’s how capable we believe we are of doing things. It turns out that this is no small factor studies have shown that simply believing in our own abilities actually improves performance. Self-efficacy can vary from task to task; an individual may have high self-efficacy for a math task and low self-efficacy for juggling.
Locus of control
the extent to which someone believes they control the events that affect them.
internal locus of control
believe they are able to influence outcomes through their own efforts and actions.
external locus of control
perceive outcomes as controlled by outside forces.
Self-esteem
overall self-evaluation of one’s self-worth.
social-identity
the perception of oneself as a member of certain social groups.
Sigmund Freud’s stages and ages
Oral (0-1 years of age): the mouth is the pleasure center for development. Freud believed this is why infants are born with a sucking reflex and desire their mother’s’s breast.
Anal (1-3 years of age): toddlers and preschool-aged children begin to experiment with urine and feces. The control they learn to exert over their bodily functions is manifested in toilet-training.
Phallic (3-6 years of age): preschoolers take pleasure in their genitals and, according to Freud, begin to struggle with sexual desires toward the opposite sex parent (boys to mothers and girls to fathers). For boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy’s’s desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father, who is seen as a rival for the mother’s’s attention. At the same time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him for his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety. The Electra complex, later proposed by Freud’s’s protégé Carl Jung, involves a girl’s’s desire for her father’s’s attention and wish to take her mother’s’s place.
Latency (6-12 years of age): sexual instincts subside, and children begin to further develop the conscience.
Genital (12+ years of age): sexual impulses reemerge. If other stages have been successfully met, adolescents engage in appropriate sexual behavior, which may lead to marriage and childbirth.
Erik Erikson’s stages and ages (8)
Trust vs Mistrust: From birth to 12 months, infants must learn that adults can be trusted.
Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt: As toddlers (1–3 yrs) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results.
Initiative vs Guilt: Once children reach the preschool stage (3–6 yrs), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.
Industry vs Inferiority: During the elementary school stage (6–12). Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure up.
Identity vs Role Confusion: In adolescence (12–18). According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves.
Intimacy vs Isolation: People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s). After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others.
Generativity vs Stagnation: When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. Generativity involves finding your life’s’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children.
Integrity vs Despair: From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure.
Lev Vygotsky proposed a theory
goes further in explicitly recognizing the involvement of social and cultural factors in development. The most important element of his theory is that learning takes place through interactions with others that promote the acquisition of culturally valued behaviors and beliefs. Vygotsky’s work inspired the sociocultural approach to identity, which emphasizes socialization and the learning experiences that facilitate identity formation.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory
moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages.
- After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people’s’s responses and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for preconventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-conventional morality (once Piaget’s’s idea of formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve. Each level of morality contains two stages, which provide the basis for moral development in various contexts.
- Level 1: Preconventional: a child’s’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers.
- Level 2: Conventional: a child’s’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.
- Level 3: Postconventional: a person’s’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their principles.
Charles Cooley
He asserted that people’s self-understanding is constructed, in part, by their perception of how others view them—a process termed “the looking glass self” (Cooley 1902).
• The looking-glass self states people see themselves based on how they believe others perceive them during social interactions.
There are three main components of the looking-glass self:
◦ First, we imagine how we must appear to others.
◦ Second, we imagine the judgment of that appearance.
◦ Finally, we develop our self through the judgments of others.
• In hypothesizing the framework for the looking glass self, Cooley said, “the mind is mental” because “the human mind is social. ” In other words, the mind’s mental ability is a direct result of human social interaction
George Herbert Mead
studied the self, a person’s distinct identity that is developed through social interaction. In order to engage in this process of “self,” an individual has to be able to view him or herself through the eyes of others. That’s not an ability that we are born with (Mead 1934). Through socialization we learn to put ourselves in someone else’s shoes and look at the world through their perspective. This assists us in becoming self-aware, as we look at ourselves from the perspective of the “other.”
During the preparatory stage, children are only capable of imitation: they have no ability to imagine how others see things. They copy the actions of people with whom they regularly interact, such as their mothers and fathers. This is followed by the play stage, during which children begin to take on the role that one other person might have, or role taking. Thus, children might try on a parent’s point of view by acting out “grownup” behavior, like playing “dress up” and acting out the “mom” role, or talking on a toy telephone the way they see their father do.
- During the game stage, children learn to consider several roles at the same time and how those roles interact with each other. They learn to understand interactions involving different people with a variety of purposes. For example, a child at this stage is likely to be aware of the different responsibilities of people in a restaurant who together make for a smooth dining experience (someone seats you, another takes your order, someone else cooks the food, while yet another clears away dirty dishes).
- Finally, children develop, understand, and learn the idea of the generalized other, the common behavioral expectations of general society. By this stage of development, an individual is able to imagine how he or she is viewed by one or many others—and thus, form a sociological perspective, to have a “self” (Mead 1934; Mead 1964).
Social comparison theory
centered on the belief that there is a drive within individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations. Individuals evaluate their own opinions and define the self by comparing themselves to others. One important concept in this theory is the reference group. A reference group refers to a group to which an individual or another group is compared. Sociologists call any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior a reference group.
Robert K. Merton
hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires. Reference groups act as a frame of reference to which people always refer to evaluate their achievements, their role performance, aspirations and ambitions. A reference group can either be from a membership group or non-membership group.
Jeffrey J. Arnet
three primary goals of socialization.
◦ First, socialization teaches impulse control and helps individuals develop a conscience. This first goal is accomplished naturally: as people grow up within a particular society, they pick up on the expectations of those around them and internalize these expectations to moderate their impulses and develop a conscience.
◦ Second, socialization teaches individuals how to prepare for and perform certain social roles—occupational roles, gender roles, and the roles of institutions such as marriage and parenthood. Gender socialization, for example, is the process by which the cultural norms of femininity or masculinity are learned.
◦ Third, socialization cultivates shared sources of meaning and value. Through socialization, people learn to identify what is important and valued within a particular culture.
