Topic 7 - Long-Term Memory II Flashcards
Types of rehearsal
1) maintenance rehearsal
2) elaborative rehearsal
MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL
if ur thinking about trying to hold a picture in mind ( or trying to hold a phone number in mind), and your not really doing anything with the material and just repeating it in your phrenological loop - maintenance rehearsal. So when info is retained from short-term memory via this rehearsal, once you’ve used this info, it’s gonna be lost forever.
- NOT STORED IN LTM
ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL
- encourages info from STM into LTM.
- Semantic code that could both help and hinder performance.
- meaning based = -laying around with the material that you already have. (Thinking about what you already know about it or if you’ve experienced it before)
Between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal, which is more effective?
Elaborative rehearsal
Learning principles for enhancing memory
1) deeper is better
2) interact
3) organize
4) harder work increases memory recall
5) information personally relevant
6) generate personal cues
7) structure
8) test
1) deeper is better
The more resources you use to encode information, the more likely it is to be recalled from memory.
- elaborative rehearsal
- 3 levels of processing that account for improving memory
3 levels of processing that account for improving memory
1) surface (physical)
2) intermediate (phonological)
3) deep (semantic)
3 levels of processing that account for improving memory train example ?
1) surface (physical) - how many vowels?
2) intermediate (phonological) - does it rhyme ?
3) deep (semantic) - is it a form of public transportation
Deeper is better
- predicts that …
- concludes that …
Predicts that evaluating usefulness leads to deeper processing
Concludes that memory is better when evaluating usefulness
Who is deeper is better by?
Craig and Lockhart
2) interact
- bower and winzenz
- things are better remembered when interactive mental imagery is produced by them (pig + cone = pig wearing a cone)
Creating a single scene that includes both images is better then
2 separate images near each other.
- but the 2 images interacting makes best recalling results
3) organize
- bower
- items are better remembered when they are structured into meaningful groups and heircharches
Ex: visual organization = levels + sub levels = increase recall
Long term memory breaks down into what?
Implicit memory and declarative memory
Implicit memory breaks down into
Procedural memory
&
Repetition priming
Declarative memory breaks down into what
Semantic memory and episodic memory
4) make it hard on yourself
Key words that are linked to complicated sentences are better remembered than words linked to simple sentences.
- harder you work at the time of study, the better you’ll remember the keywords
5) make info personally relevant
Same material presented 4 times, giving 4 same responses, but the 4 questions were different. Personally relevant question got the was remembered.
Materials and response demands were the same, personally connected words are better remembered
6) generate information
Your own cues > someone’s else’s cues > no cues at all
What did the drawing with the balloons show and whihc ideas did it consolidate?
It showed information without - visual imagery - interactive parts - structure Would not make sense at all and is required for comprehension
7) provide structure
- Unstructured info very hard to remember.
- If possible, develop a mental framework for thinking about information (c.f., organise).
8) test
Being tested instead of rereading something importers BOTH STM ( 5 minutes) and LTM (1 week) recall.
- emphasizes that the challenge at the time of encoding is important for eventual retention
TEST experiment
DAY 1: Distributed learning (1st encoding)
DAY 2: Distributed learning (2nd encoding) Massed learning (1st and 2nd encoding) Single session (1st encoding) TEST 1
DAY 3: TEST 2
- Test 1 on day 2: distributed and massed scored the same. Single session did the worst
- Test 2 on day 3: distributed > massed > single.
Distributed learning > massed learning > single session learning
- Single session learning group:
- Distributed learning group:
- Massed learning group:
- Single session learning group: only had one opportunity to encode info on day 2.
- Distributed learning group: had 2 opputinities to encode across days 1 and 2. Seen to have the highest score out of all 3 groups.
- Massed learning group: had 2 opportunities to encode within a single day (day 2)
Single session learning is always the
Worst
The effects of massed learning get
worse as time between study and test increases.
Testing yourself regularly during the learning process can help you to recall more information than simply rereading, especially at
longer delays.
Benefits of Testing to recall info really comes into play when the
retention interval becomes long.
• so instead of studying twice, study then test gives better recall results.
- 5 minutes: study/study > study/test
- 2 days: study/test > study/study
- 1 week: study/test»_space; study/study
Given the same overall amount of study time,
fewer re-learning sessions over longer periods is the same as more re-learning session over shorter periods (Bahrick et al.,1993).
- Distributed learning better than cramming.
Information can interfere with one another if it is
learnt over the same short time period and if it is similar in nature: interference.
- These problems can be offset with sleep and also by changing your learning schedule.
What are the kinds of interferences?
1) Retroactive interference
2) proactive interference
Retroactive interference
new info compromises ability to remember old info
• summarized with the simpsons quote (you learn something new & old stuff gets pushed out of your brain)
proactive interference:
old info compromises ability to remember new info
Short term memory breaks down into what
Implicit and explicit memory
Short term memory has implicit & explicit mem. Expressing the different b/w
recall and recognition.
- Test explicit:
* Test implicit:
- Test explicit: person forgot info as there’s no explicit record of info.
- Test implicit: testing more subtle forms of memory (lowering the threshold), giving an incomplete memory representation
Recall breaks down into what
1) free recall
2) cued recall
Free recall
“Write down as many words as you can”
Cued recall
“Write down as many animals as you can”
- provided with structure to organize material
Recognition memory
- shown all words and asked which are old and which are new?”
- being able to recognize the correct answer from a lot of information (MC questions)
- seeing correct answer = triggers incomplete memory trace = achieve learning outcome
Study - test relations (water/land)
Study LAND/test LAND > study WATER/test WATER >
(Study WATER/test LAND = study LAND/test WATER)
- Study and test conditions being the most similar showed the best recall of info.
- recreation of EXTERNAL conditions of study to the time of test lead to better recall, especially on land.
Study test relations (drunk V sober)
Study/test SOBER > study/test DRUNK > study SOBER/test DRUNK > study DRUNK/test SOBER
- recreation of INTERNAL conditions at study to the time of test leading to better recall, especially when sober.
Duplicating study and test conditions is basically replicating the
external conditions at STUDY at the time of TES, leading to better recall, especially on land.
Study test relations principle and hypothothesis
1) encoding specificity principle
2) transfer appropriate hypothesis
1) encoding specificity principle
Helps to explain context-dependent (external) and state-dependent (internal) remembering. Success at retrieval is increased by reinstating the cues used at encoding. Do what you did at study at test!
- recreate context (external) and state (internal)
Context dependant memory
Based on External conditions
State dependant memory
Based on internal conditions
2) transfer appropriate hypothesis
A more specific definition of state-dependent remembering. Repeating the cognition processes undertaken at encoding at test will help you reaccess this information.
- recreating cognitive processes at the time of study to the time of test.
(the kind of things your were thinking about and the way you were engaging with the material at the time of study should be recreated during time of test) = specific example of state dependant remembering
Types of consolidation of memory
1) synaptic consolidation
2) systems consolidation
1) synaptic consolidation
- New memories are fragile
- As a result of long- term potentiation neurons sensitive to the incoming stimulus will fire at an increased rate the more the stimulus is repeated.
- repeated memories are more robust and have greater rates of firing AP
2) systems consolidation
Focuses on which brain regions involved in establishing new memories and old ones.
- Further increases the robustness of new memories via slower changes and reorganisation of neural networks.
- The hippocampus plays a special role.
- MtT
The hippocampus reactivates the networks associated with memories such that independent cortical networks are established. Reactivation occurs during
sleep, relaxation or conscious rehearsal (Peigneux et al., 2004).
As memory gets older and older, the balance of power shifts form the
hippocampus to the cortex.
If a memory is very old, it’s unlikely to recall upon ____________ activity as all.
• older memories represented by the cortex
• Newer memories represented by the hippocampus
hippocampal
- older memories represented by the cortex
- Newer memories represented by the hippocampus
New memories:
- cortex:
- hippocampus:
Oldish memories
- cortex:
- hippocampus:
Old memories
- cortex:
- hippocampus:
New memories
- cortex: LOW
- hippocampus: HIGH
Oldish memories
- cortex: HIGH
- hippocampus: MODERATE
Old memories
- cortex: HIGH
- hippocampus: LOW
Kinds of amnesia
Retrograde and anterograde
Retrograde amnesia
Forgetting the info happening before the trauma.
Most recent memories are most fragile and most easily forgotten
- effects of forgetting memories is GRADED (newest most forgotten)
Anterograde amnesia
Forgetting events that happen after the trauma
- NOT GRADED
Events further back in the past are are less likely to be forgotten because they are more likely to have been subjected to
long-term potentiation and reactivation.
Multiple trace theory
Suggest that hippocampus is active during old memories
- during new memory: hippocampus has HIGH ACTIVITY, cortex has LOW ACTIVITY
- During old memory: hippocampus has HIGH ACTIVITY, cortex has HIGH ACTIVITY
reconsolidation
Process of taking info out of long term, outputting it via short term memory, then serving as additional input (this info could be changed or modified in its fragile state).
- treats PTSD
The process of memory retrieval makes the content of memory
fragile
The process of reconsolidation means that information can be
changed or modified in this fragile state.
Why are memories reconsolidated during time of retrieval ?
Because it is at its most fragil during this time, so its easier to chnage its contents
Associative memory forms between the
UCS and CS
What is injected for reconsolidation and acts as a memory changer
Anisomycin
Anisomycin effects in 3 different conditions
A). if anisomysin is delivered DURING consolidation = DOES remove the association between shock and tone (no freezing)
B). if anisomysin is delivered AFTER consolidation = DOES NOT remove the association between shock and tone (FREEZE)
C). if anisomycin is delivered AFTER consolidation + Tone = on day 2, it initially DOES NOT remove the association (no freezing), then on day 3 it DOES remove the association (freeze)
- anisomycin affects the reactivating of the association, so that on day 3, the animal doesn’t freeze.
- During reactivation, the presence of anisomycin obliterates the learned association between the shock and tone.
During reactivation, the presence of anisomycin
obliterates the learned association between the shock and tone.
Synthetic drug to chnage mmeories for the better
Propranolol
Propranolol does what?
blocks stress activation in amygdala. Likely to reduce emotional component of memory, then put the changed and modified memory back into LTM
When propranolol is injected during reconsolidating in session 1 and not injected in session 2…
Session 1: propranolol Is injected.
- reduced stress activation of amygdala and reduces emotional component of that memory, and is then put into LTM after being changed and modified
Session 2: propranolol is NOT injected.
- even without propranolol, when trauma is recalled, emotional level is reduced and we altered the content of that memory in previous session.
Physiological effects of propranolol
- Smaller heart rate increases
- smaller skin conductance increases
Physiological responses of PTSD recalling memory with out any treatment?
- Larger heart rate increase
- larger skin conductance increase
