Topic 7: EQ3 Flashcards
What are most superpowers fuelled by?
Superpowers are fuelled by resources, and in the 21st century its Human Resources becoming increasingly important. This is due to innovation, skill and entrepreneurship being vital in maintaining technological, economic and military hegemony.
Old-fashion resources are still critical, however, and this includes fossil fuels, ores and minerals.
What are some reasons why resources would be contested?
-The land border between two countries could be in dispute (e.g with India and China).
-The ownership of a landmass is in dispute (such as Argentina claiming the UK-governments Falklands which may contain fossil fuels)
-The extent of a nation’s offshore economic zone is in dispute, or claimed by another nation.
What is an exclusive economic zone?
This is the area of ocean which extends 200 nautical miles beyond the coastline, of which the nation controls the sea and sub-sea resources.
EEZ borders are decided by the UN in the event of a dispute.
What is an example of resources being contested?
The Arctic’s oil and gas, where an estimated 30% of the world’s undiscovered gas, and 13% of the oil resources are said to be.
The tensions are only likely to rise further as global warming makes the Arctic, as well as its resources increasingly accessible.
What factors are causing the Arctic’s resources to become more desirable over time?
-Melting permafrost makes drilling less difficult and cheaper.
-Melting summer sea ice is now allowing ships to travel the North Sea Shipping route, cutting transport costs by 40%.
-As fossil fuels aren’t renewable, and other known reserves are already beginning to run out of their finite resources, the attraction to use the Arctic’s ≈30% of undiscovered oil is rising.
How are tensions arising over the Arctic’s contested resources?
-In 2007, a Russian submarine planted a Russian flag on the seabed below the North Pole, claiming access to its resources.
-Other nations have made similar claims, such as Denmark in 2014. They argue that much of the Arctic is their EEZ because Greenland (a self-governing part of Denmark) controls 900,000km^2 of the Arctic Ocean. The UN will north respond to any of these claims for at least another number of years.
-There is also tension over the ethics of the exploitation, with many arguing that the resources should/must remain untouched if the world is committed to limiting climate change to 2°C.
How have some nation’s responded with hard power in the Arctic?
-Canada have carried out military exercises in the Arctic
-Norway has expanded its Navy
-Russia has carried out Arctic Bomber patrols
-Denmark is creating an Arctic Military Command and Response force.
How have some countries responded to the Artic’s resources using soft power?
-Environmental groups have been at the forefront of protesting against exploitation (e.g 3million signed a petition against Project Willow)
-2015 UN Paris Climate Change agreement
-The Arctic council promotes co-operation in the Arctic’s regions.
-In 2015, the UK House of Lords called for an Arctic Ambassador.
What is Project Willow?
-US President Joe Biden has approved a major oil and gas drilling project in Alaska that faced strong opposition from environmental activists.
-Located on Alaska’s remote North Slope, it is the largest oil development in the region for decades and could produce up to 180,000 barrels of oil a day.
-The US energy giant, which is already Alaska’s largest crude oil producer, will enhance energy security, create good union jobs and provide benefits to Alaska Native communities
What are intellectual property rights?
Intellectual property refers to creations of the mind: inventions; literary and artistic works; and symbols, names and images used in commerce.
Intellectual property is divided into two categories: -Industrial Property (e.g patents for innovation). -Copyright covers literary works (such as novels, films, music etc)
What have caused intellectual property rights to become more important?
-They have become significantly more important due to globalisation since the 1990s, and the increased production of counterfeit goods in emerging economies.
-An estimated 5-10% of world trade is in counterfeit goods
-This is thought to cost hundreds of thousand of jobs each year in places such as the USA and EU, as well as billions lost in business revenue.
How has China been accused of counterfeit good production?
Chinese companies are well known for infringing IP by producing counterfeit products.
-Many western car companies such as BMW and Rolls Royce have seen Chinese companies create copies of their models.
-Fake apple products are also common. 22 fake apple stores were found in China in 2011 and
-In 2013 the UN estimated that 70% of all the world’s counterfeit goods came from China.
What are the benefits of intellectual property rights?
-Intellectual Property is important because innovations and ideas can be stolen and used by others.
-This would be a disincentive to invent and innovate.
-The costs of developing new medicines or communications could not be recouped through selling products if others could simply copy the ideas.
What are the negatives of intellectual property rights?
-Intellectual Property requires uses or a product to pay royalties (fees) to the inventor, which is a cost to developing countries
-IP holders do not have a duty to make a new invention available, e.g. they could prevent a new medicine being made
-The system can create a monopoly where a patent holder can charge what they like for a new products, exploiting consumers.
What are the consequences of China’s (and other nations) counterfeit production?
-This can sour relationships between countries, especially the USA and China.
-TNCs might be reluctant to invest in China knowing the profits might be reduced by counterfeiting.
-Lack of action by the government means that they might be unlikely to cooperate in other ways.
-The possibility of trade agreements is limited if one side does not play by the rules.
What is a sphere of influence?
A sphere of influence is a physical region over which a country believes it has economic, military or political rights. Spheres of influence extend beyond the borders of the country and represent a region where the country believes it has a right to influence the policies of other countries outside of it’s nations borders.
What are two examples of political tensions over global influence being caused by spheres of influence?
-South and East China Seas
-Western Russia and Eastern Europe
Which nations are the main players in the China sea conflicts?
-China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Taiwan, Malaysia and Brunei all claim parts of the same territory in the South China Sea.
-This has occurred for centuries, but tensions have risen in recent years.
What is the reason for the political tension in the South and East China Sea?
-It is a dispute over territory and sovereignty over ocean areas, and the Paracels and the Spratlys - two island chains claimed in whole or in part by a number of countries.
-The sea is a major shipping route with huge economic efficiency potential
-Despite little explorative research, the seas are believed to have significant reserves of natural resources.
-They are also home to the fishing groups which sustain the livelihoods of so many across the region.
Why are the tensions in the South and East China Sea unlikely to come to a resolution?
-China has backed its expansive claims with island-building and naval patrols, as well as a 3km aircraft landing base on the Fiery Island.
-China prefers bilateral negotiations with the other parties. But many of its neighbours argue that China’s relative size gives it an unfair advantage. China also opposed coming to an agreement with the ASEAN.
- The US says it does not take sides in territorial disputes, but has sent military ships and planes near disputed islands, calling them “freedom of navigation” operations to ensure access to key shipping and air routes. Both sides have accused each other of “militarising” the South China Sea.
What are the issues with China’s territorial claims over the South and East China Seas?
-China claims by far the largest portion of territory - an area defined by the “nine-dash line”, showing the two island groups falling entirely within its territory, going back centuries to when the Paracel and Spratly island chains were regarded as integral parts of the Chinese nation, and in 1947 it issued a map detailing its claims.
-Vietnam hotly disputes China’s historical account, saying China had never claimed sovereignty over the islands before the 1940s.
-The other major claimant in the area is the Philippines, which invokes its geographical proximity to the Spratly Islands as the main basis of its claim for part of the grouping.
-Both the Philippines and China lay claim to the Scarborough Shoal (known as Huangyan Island in China) - a little more than 100 miles (160km) from the Philippines and 500 miles from China.
What has caused the political tension over global influence in West Russia/Eastern Europe?
-Following from the 1991 collapse of the USSR, many former Soviet republics have or have a serious consideration of joining the EU and NATO.
-However, Russia has reacted to a number of these moves, believing that these regions should remain under the influence of Russia.
How have the increased political tensions between Western Europe and Russia caused a number of implications for people and economics?
-The EU and US economic sanctions following the 2014 Ukraine invasion has isolated Russia economically, but also negatively impacted EU exporters.
-Many open conflicts and Russian invasions (e.g Ukraine and Georgia) has led to the forced displacement of 10s of thousands of people, as well as hundreds of deaths.
Has Russia lost all of its global influence as a result of the political tensions?
No, some Russian bordering nations such as Belarus are influenced by Russia in many ways:
-Economy (trade and energy suppliers)
-Culture (similar language and customs)
-Politics (similar political systems)
How have existing superpowers such as the USA and EU been accused of having unfair relationships with developing countries?
-Neo-colonialism: Superpowers pull the economic and political strings of developing countries
-Unfair trade: cheap commodity exports for the developing world set against expensive manufactured imports from the developed nations.
-Brain drain of skilled workers from developing countries to boost developed-world economies
-Local wealthy elites, who control imports and exports in developing countries, benefitting from the neo-colonial relationship but having no interest in changing it.
What is an example of an emerging nation having influence on a developing region?
China’s FDI into Africa.
How has China become a source of FDI to Africa?
-Since 2000, Africa has slowly become an increasingly major trade partner for China.
-China’s annual FDI increased to $3billion in 2015
-China does also provide economic and development aid to Africa (between $2-3billion each year)
-China had built 2250km of railways and 3350km of roads in Africa by 2015.
How has China’s involvement in Africa increased interdependence?
-China relies on African oil from Angola, Nigeria and Sudan.
-China relies on Zambian copper, as well as biofuels grown in Africa.
-Africa now increasingly imports Chinese-manufactured goods, and relies on Chinese investment in Infrastructure like roads, rail and ports.
What evidence is there that China’s role in Africa is creating a neo-colonial rule?
-The jobs created in Mozambique have often been low pay, had poor rights and reports of human rights abuse.
-Infrastructure investments ensure China can export raw materials cheaply and efficiently
-Skilled and technical jobs are often filled by Chinese migrants workers (over 1million now live in Africa)
-Cheap Chinese imports have undercut local producers.
-Chinese funding has helped support regimes with poor human rights records (e.g Mugabe in Zimbabwe) as well as land grabs.
-Much of the FDI brings temporary construction jobs, little are long-term (e,g mines and oil fields)
What evidence is there that China’s role in Africa is allowing Africa to develop?
-China has made heavy investment into roads, railways and ports (which Africans can use).
-Vital jobs are created in industry and energy, which helps modernise the economy
-Chinese investment brings modern innovation to Africa
-China has funded 17 major HEP projects since 2000, and between 2011-18, over US$4billion was invested to Ethiopia’s energy sector.
-Investment deals are often accompanied by aid.
