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AQA A Level Biology Paper 2 > Topic 6.2 - Nerve Impulses and Synaptic Transmission > Flashcards

Topic 6.2 - Nerve Impulses and Synaptic Transmission Flashcards

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1
Q

State the function of sensory neurones

A

Carriers nerve impulses from receptor towards intermediate neurones within central nervous system.

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2
Q

State the function of motor neurones

A

Carries nerve impulses away from the central nervous system towards an effector

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3
Q

State the function of intermediate neurones

A

Connect sensory to motor neurones

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4
Q

Where are intermediate neurones found?

A

Within spinal cord

(have numerous short dendrites)

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5
Q

Describe the structure and function of the axon

A

Single long fibre that carriers nerve impulses

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6
Q

Describe the structure and function of dendrites

A

Small extensions of cell body which carry impulses toward cell body

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7
Q

Describe the structure and function of the cell body

A
  • Contains a nucleus and large number of endoplasmic reticulum
  • Produces neurotransmitters
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8
Q

Describe the structure of the myelin sheath

A
  • Covers the axon
  • Made up of membranes of Schwann cells
  • Membranes are rich in the lipid myelin
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9
Q

Describe the structure and function of Schwann cells

A

Surround and wrap around axon, providing protection and electrical insulation

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10
Q

Describe the structure of Nodes of Ranvier

A
  • Small gaps between adjacent Schwann cell
  • Sodium ion channels are concentrated at the nodes
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11
Q

When is the sympathetic system activated?

A

In times of stress (Fight or flight)

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12
Q

What is the sympathetic system responsible for?

A

For increasing heart rate and ventilation and pupil dilation

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13
Q

When is the parasympathetic system active?

A

Most active in relaxed states (Rest and digest)

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14
Q

What is the parasympathetic system responsible for?

A

Responsible for decreasing heart rate and ventilation rate and pupil constriction

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15
Q

What does the parasympathetic system enable?

A

Enables everyday tasks to be completed (digest food, fight infections, etc.)

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16
Q

Describe and explain the charge of a neurone’s resting state

A
  • In neurone’s resting state, outside of membrane is positively charged compared to inside
    • therefore more positive ions outside cell than inside
    • (resting potential = about -70 mv)​
  • Therefore the membrane is said to be polarised (difference in charge across it)
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17
Q

State how resting potential is created and maintained

A

By sodium-potassium pumps & potassium ion channels

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18
Q

Describe how the resting potential is created and maintained by sodium-potassium pumps and potassium ion channels

A
  1. Sodium-potassium pump uses active transport to move 3 Na+ out of neurone for every 2 K+ ions moved in
    1. ATP needed to do this
  2. Membrane isn’t permeable to Na+ = can’t diffuse back
  3. Creates sodium ion electrochemical gradient because more Na+ outside cell than inside
  4. Membrane is permeable to K so they diffuse back out though K+ channels, down their concentration gradient via facilitated diffusion
  5. Makes outside of cell positively charged compared to inside
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19
Q

Neurone cell membranes become ________ when they’re stimulated

A

Depolarised

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20
Q

If a stimulus is big enough, it triggers rapid change in ___

A

potential difference

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21
Q

Name the 5 stages of how an action potential occurs i.e. how neurone cell membranes become depolarised when they’re stimulated

A
  1. Stimulus
  2. Depolarisation
  3. Repolarisation
  4. Hyperpolarisation
  5. Resting potential
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22
Q

Action Potentials

  1. Describe the stage stimulus
A
  • Stimulus excites neurones cell membrane which causes Na+ channels to open, making membrane more permeable to Na+
  • Na+ then diffuse (down electrochemical gradient) into neurone, making it less negative
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23
Q

Action Potentials

  1. Describe the stage depolarisation
A

Once threshold has been met (around -55mv), more Na+ channels open so more Na+ diffuse in rapidly

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24
Q

Action Potentials

  1. Describe the stage repolarisation
A
  1. (At around +30mV) Na+ channels close and the K+ channels open
    • (Na+ channels have to close or membrane will remain depolarised)
  2. Membrane is now more permeable to K+
  3. So K+ diffuse out of neurone down K+ conc. gradient
  4. Gets membrane back to its resting potential
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25
Q

Action Potentials

  1. Describe the stage hyperpolarisation
A
  1. K+ channels are slow to close so there’s a slight overshoot where too many K+ diffuse out of neurone
  2. Causes potential difference to become more negative than resting potential
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26
Q

Action Potentials

  1. Describe the stage resting potential
A
  1. Ion channels are reset
  2. Sodium-potassium pump returns membrane to its resting potential
  3. & maintains until membrane’s excited by another stimulus
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27
Q

Explain why after an action potential, the neurone cell membrane can’t be excited again straight away

A
  • because ion channels are recovering & can’t be made to open
  • Na+ channels are closed during repolarisation and K+ are closed during hyperpolarisation
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28
Q

Describe how an action potential moves along a neurone

A
  1. When action potential occurs, some Na+ that enter neurone diffuse sideways
  2. Causes Na+ channels in next region of neurone to open and Na+ ions diffuse into that part
  3. Causes wave of depolarisation to travel along neurone
  4. Wave move away from parts of membrane in refractory period because these parts can’t fire an action potential
29
Q

What is the refractory period?

A

When ion channels are recovering and can’t be opened

30
Q

What does the refractory period act as?

A

Acts as a time delay between 1 action potential and the next

31
Q

Name 3 things the refractory period ensures

A
  • Action potentials don’t overlap
    • But pass along discrete (separate) impulses
  • Limit to frequency of which nerve impulses can be transmitted
  • Action potentials are unidirectional (only travel in 1 direction)
32
Q

Describe the all-or-nothing nature of action potentials

A
  1. Once threshold is reached, action potential will always fire with same change in voltage
    • No matter how big stimulus is
  2. If threshold isn’t reached, action potential won’t fire
33
Q

What does a bigger stimulus cause?

A

Causes action potentials to fire more frequently

DOESN’T cause a bigger action potential

34
Q

Name 3 factors that affect the speed of conduction of action potentials

A
  • Temperature
  • Axon Diameter
  • Myelination
35
Q

Describe and explain how temperature affects the speed of
conduction of action potentials

A
  • Speed of conduction increases as temp. increase
    • because ions diffuse faster
  • Speed only increases up to 40°C
  • After proteins, denature & speed decreases
    • Active transport is used for sodium-potassium pump & enzymes are used
36
Q

Describe how axon diameter affects the speed of conduction of action potentials

A

Bigger diameter = faster the conduction of action potentials

37
Q

Explain why action potentials are conducted quicker along axons with bigger diameters

A
  • because there’s less resistance to flow of ions in cytoplasm of bigger axon
  • less leakage of ions from axon
  • With less resistance, depolarisation reaches other parts of neurone cell membrane quicker
38
Q

In myelinated neurone, where does depolarisation only occur?

A

At nodes of Ranvier

39
Q

Describe and explain how myelination increases the speed of
conduction of action potentials

A
  • Neurone’s cytoplasm conducts enough electrical charge to depolarise the next node so impulse jumps from node to node
    • Called saltatory conduction & it’s very fast
  • In non-myelinated neurone, impulse travels as wave along whole length of axon membrane
    • (Get depolarisation along whole length of membrane)
    • Slower than saltatory conduction
40
Q

What is a synapse?

A

Junction between 2 neurones or between neurone and effector cell

41
Q

What is a synaptic cleft?

A

Tiny gap between cells at synapse

42
Q

What is the presynaptic knob?

A

The presynaptic neurone that has a swelling

43
Q

Presynaptic knob contains synaptic vesicles that are filled with…

A

neurotransmitters

44
Q

Explain how synapses make sure impulses are unidirectional

A
  • (Vesicles containing) neurotransmitter only in presynaptic membrane/neurone
  • Receptors are only on postsynaptic membranes
45
Q

Describe what happens briefly when an action potential reaches the end of a neurone

A
  • Causes neurotransmitters to be released into synaptic cleft
  • Diffuse across to postsynaptic membrane & bind to specific receptors
  • Can trigger action potential & cause muscle contraction or hormone secretion
46
Q

Describe what happens in the synapse to stop a response from keep happening

A
  • Neurotransmitters are removed from cleft
  • Taken back into presynaptic neurone or broken down by enzymes
47
Q

What is a cholinergic synapse?

A

Synapses that use acetylcholine (neurotransmitter - ACh)

48
Q

Describe how a nerve impulse is transmitted across a cholinergic synapse

A
  1. Arrival of action potential (at synaptic knob) causes calcium ion channels to open and calcium ions to enter synaptic knob
  2. Influx of calcium ions causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with presynaptic membrane
    • Releases ACh from vesicles into synaptic cleft (exocytosis)
  3. ACh diffuse across synaptic cleft and bind to specific cholinergic receptors on postsynaptic membrane
    1. Na+ channels in postsynaptic neurone to open
  4. Influx of Na+ causes depolarisation & generates action potential in postsynaptic neurone (if threshold reached)
  5. AChE (acetylcholinesterase) hydrolyses ACh into choline and ethanoic acid (acetyl) which diffuses back into presynaptic neurone
    1. Removed so that its response doesn’t keep happening
    2. Sodium channels close
  6. ATP is released by mitochondria to recombine choline and ethanoic acid to form ACh
    • Stored in synaptic vesicles for future use
49
Q

Neurotransmitters can be both _____ and _____

A

Neurotransmitters can be both excitatory and inhibitory

50
Q

What are excitatory neurotransmitters?

A
  • Neurotransmitters that depolarise postsynaptic membrane
  • Making it fire action potential if threshold is reached
51
Q

State where is acetylcholine is excitatory

A

At cholinergic synapse in CNS

52
Q

State what (excitatory) acetylcholine does at the cholinergic synapses in CNS

A

Binds to cholinergic receptors = causes action potential in postsynaptic membrane and neuromuscular junctions

53
Q

What are inhibitory neurotransmitters?

A
  • Hyperpolarise postsynaptic membrane (make potential difference more negative)
  • Preventing it from firing action potential
54
Q

State where is acetylcholine is inhibitory

A

At cholinergic synapse in heart

55
Q

State what (inhibitory) acetylcholine does at the cholinergic synapses in the heart

A

Binds to receptors = causes potassium ion channels to open on postsynaptic membrane = hyperpolarising it.

Or can cause release of chlorine ions which are negative.

56
Q

What is summation?

A

The effect of neurotransmitter released from many neurones is added together

57
Q

What does summation allow?

A

Allows synapses to accurately process info, finely turning the response

58
Q

Name 2 types of summation

A
  • Temporal summation
  • Spatial summation
59
Q

What is temporal summation?

A

Where 2 or more nerve impulses arrive in quick succession from same presynaptic neurone

60
Q

Why does temporal summation make an action potential more likely?

A

because more neurotransmitters is released into synaptic cleft

61
Q

Describe how spatial summation results in an action potential

A
  • Sometimes many neurones connect to 1 neurone
  • Small amount of neurotransmitter released from each neurone = enough altogether to reach threshold in postsynaptic neurone & trigger action potential
62
Q

What is a neuromuscular junction?

A

Is synapse between motor neurone and muscle cell

63
Q

What neurotransmitter is used in a neuromuscular junction?

A
  • ACh
    • Binds to cholinergic receptors
      • Work same way as cholinergic synapse
64
Q

Name 3 differences between neuromuscular junctions and cholinergic synapses

A
  • Postsynaptic membrane has lots of folds that form clefts
    • Clefts stores acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
  • Postsynaptic membrane has more receptors than other synapses
  • ACh is always excitatory at neuromuscular junction
    • When motor neurone fires action potential = triggers response in muscle cell
      • Isn’t the case for synapse between 2 neurones
65
Q

Drugs Affect Synaptic Transmission:

What are agonists?

A
  • Have same shape as neurotransmitters = mimic their action at receptors
  • Means more receptors are activated
  • e.g. nicotine mimics ACh so binds to nicotine cholinergic receptors in brain
66
Q

Drugs Affect Synaptic Transmission:

What are antagonists?

A
  • Block receptors so they can’t be activated by neurotransmitters
  • Fewer receptors can be activated
  • e.g. curare blocks effects of ACh by blocking nicotinic cholinergic receptors at neuromuscular junctions
    • So muscle cells can’t be stimulated = paralysed
67
Q

Drugs Affect Synaptic Transmission:

Describe the benefit of drugs that inhibit enzymes that break down neurotransmitters

A
  • because there’s more neurotransmitters in synaptic cleft to bind to receptors and they’re there for longer
  • e.g. nerve gases stop ACh from being broken down = loss of muscle control
68
Q

An action potential is generated at the cell body of the motor neurone. Explain how this action potential passes along the motor neurone to the neuromuscular junction. (3)

A
  • Depolarisation of axon membrane/influx of Na+ establishes local currents
  • Change permeability to Na+/open Na+ gates of adjoining region
  • Adjoining region depolarises/influx of Na+
69
Q

The rate of ATP consumption in a non-myelinated neurone is greater than that of a myelinated neurone when conducting electrical impulses at the same frequency. Explain why. (2)

A
  • Greater entry of sodium ions
  • Active transport

AQA A Level Biology Paper 2 (16 decks)

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