Topic 6 - Family diversity

Question 1

Postmodern society and family

Diversity and fragmentation:

Answer 1

Society has become more diverse with a range of lifestyles, cultures instead of one universal one.
People can ‘pick and mix’ different elements to establish their identity (e.g., Gender, sexuality, subcultures etc.)

Question 2

Postmodern society and family

Rapid social change:

Answer 2

New technologies have dissolved barriers of time and space and transformed patterns of work and leisure.
The accelerated pace makes life more unpredictable which consequently makes family life less stable
However, individuals have more choice of relationships which means it’s no longer possible to generalise about families

Question 3

Modernist Perspective

Answer 3

is a structural ‘top down’ approach

Family is a structure that shapes the behaviour if its members to perform functions

Individuals have limited choice of patterns of family life with patterns being orderly, structured and predictable

Question 4

Postmodern Perspective

Answer 4

Postmodernists go much further than the Rapoport’s 5 types of diversity

Cheal (1993) Society has shifted to become chaotic and uncertain, without the structure of modernist times

Nuclear family is no longer dominant family structure. Instead family structure has come fragmented and individuals have more choice over lives (e.g. relationship, lifestyle, family etc) - Institutions are becoming too diverse to define under one label, e.g. ‘family’.

Question 5

Postmodernism

Some writers argue that this greater diversity and choice brings with it both advantages and disadvantages:

Answer 5

It gives individuals greater freedom to plot their own life course – to choose the kind of family and personal relationships to meet their needs.
But greater freedom of choice in relationships means a greater risk of instability, since these relationships are more likely to break up.

Question 6

Stacey: postmodern families

Answer 6

Stacey (1998) argued postmodern society has allowed women to free themselves from patriarchal oppression and live a life that meets their needs

Women rejected traditional family types for version which better suited their needs.

Divorce extended families was an example of this where families are connected by divorce instead of marriage.
Stacey provided the example of Pam Gamma who had formed a divorce extended family with Shirley who was the partner of her former husband and supported each other domestic and financially

Question 7

postmodern families

Morgan (2011)

Answer 7

pointless to make generalisation about ‘the family’. Instead family is now whatever arrangement people choose to call their family

Question 8

Individualistion thesis

Giddens (1992): Choice and equality

Answer 8

In recent decades the family and marriage have been transformed by greater choice and more equal relationships between men and women
This has happened because:
Contraception has allowed sex and intimacy to be the main reason for a relationship rather than reproduction
Feminism - women have greater independence, better education and better job opportunities

Question 9

Giddens (1992): The pure relationship

Answer 9

‘The pure relationship’ - one that is based on individual choice rather than laws and norms
It exists solely to satisfy each partner’s needs
Couples stay together for love, sexual attraction or happiness, not because of a sense of duty or for the sake of children
As a result, the relationship is only likely to survive as long as both partners think it is in their interests to do so
Individuals can choose to enter and leave relationships as they see fit
Trying out different relationships become part of our self-discovery or self-identity - a way of establishing who we are
However, with this comes instability - the pure relationship is a ‘rolling contract’ that can be ended at any point by either partner
This creates more family diversity e.g. lone-parent families, step-families, single person households etc.

Question 10

Giddens (1992): Same sex couples as pioneers

Answer 10

ame-sex couples are leading the way towards new family types and the creation of more democratic, equal relationships
This is because same-sex relationships are not influenced by tradition - in the past they were criminalised / stigmatised
Same sex couples can therefore develop relationships based on choice rather than conforming to traditional roles (as heterosexual couples traditionally had to do), since these didn’t exist
Same sex-couples can negotiate personal relationships and create family structures that suit their own needs
Supporting evidence: Western (1992) - found same-sex couples created ‘families of choice’ from friends, former lovers and biological kin
Supporting evidence: Weeks (2000) - friendship network functions like kinship networks for gay and lesbian people

Question 11

individualistion thesis

Beck (1992): The Negotiated Family

Answer 11

We now live in a ‘risk society’ where tradition has less influence and people have more choice
We are therefore more aware of risks as making decisions involves calculating risks and rewards of different options
In the past people’s roles were fixed by tradition and strict norms dictated how they should behave
e.g. people married for life, family was patriarchal: men and women had different clear roles
The patriarchal family was oppressive and unequal, but predictable and stable - everyone know their responsibilities

However, this has been undermined by two trends:
Greater gender equality: challenging male domination - women expect equality at work and in relationships
Greater Individualism: people’s actions are influenced more by their own self-interest than obligation to others

Question 12

Beck (1992): The Negotiated Family

Answer 12

These trends have led to a new family type replacing the patriarchal family - Beck and Beck-Gernsheim called this the ‘negotiated family’
These vary depending on the wishes and expectations of family members, who decide what is best for themselves by negotiation
They enter the relationship on an equal basis
But, it is less stable - members are free to leave if their needs are not met
This leads to greater family diversity by creating more lone-parents families, remarriages, one person households etc

Question 13

Beck (1992): The Zombie Family

Answer 13

In today’s uncertain risk society people turn to the family in the hope of finding security
In reality, family relationships are now subject to greater risk and uncertainty that ever before
Beck therefore describes the family as a ‘zombie category’: it appears to be alive but, in reality, it is dead
People want it to be a haven of security in an unsecure world, but today’s family cannot provide this because of its own instability

Question 14

strengths of postmoderism

Answer 14

It has highlighted some important cultural changes, particularly in the areas of the media, culture and identity and how these impact the family

It emphasizes that the construction of identity has become a more fluid and complex process and cannot be reduced to simply a response to social structural factors.

It provides insight into the most contemporary social changes, such as growing risk and uncertainty, globalization, and the growing power of the media.

It has encouraged sociologists to reflect more on some of their assumptions, how they set about their research, and the meaning of some contemporary social changes.

Question 15

weaknesses of postmoderism

Answer 15

Marxist feminists would argue that class means that only the wealthy have choice over family relationships

Radical feminists such as Duncombe and Marsden argue that gender roles are still not negotiated and women experience a triple shift

Data from the ONS shows that the nuclear family is still the most common family structure

It exaggerates the scale of social change, such as that cultural distinction is blurred, and that there is a global culture. Cultural tastes are still strongly influenced by class, gender and ethnicity, and national cultures and identities are still strong
Postmodernism is itself a metanarrative, and if metanarratives and absolute truths are dismissed by postmodernists, then it has, in effect, dismissed itself as having anything to say that is any more valid than anything else.
Functionalists believe that negotiated roles are wrong for the individual and society - The New Right believe this could lead to welfare dependency

Question 16

Modernism & the Nuclear Family

Answer 16

Modernism refers to the notion that society is fixed, structured, rigid & predictable. In this type of society it is suggested by perspectives such as Functionalism that the Nuclear Family ‘fits’ this structure better than other types of family structures

Parsons – there is a ‘functional fit’ between the nuclear family and society. It meets the needs of society
Other family types are inadequate, abnormal or deviant, since they are less able to perform the functions required of the family.
There is no need for family diversity

Question 17

The New Right Family Diversity

Answer 17

Charles Murray argues that non-traditional types of families are to blame for educational failure, high crime rates, low employment, health problems & the ‘dependence culture’ i.e. dependence on welfare & benefits

Murray argues that an ‘Under-Class’ has formed which is to blame for the majority of society’s problems (Particularly poor Child rearing practices). This Under-Class is made up primarily of Lone-Parent families.

Question 18

The New Right

Link to Social Policy

Answer 18

New Right Family Policy focuses on reducing benefits and welfare, encouraging marriage & putting pressure on fathers to work to support their families – above all they encourage traditional values & nuclear families.

Question 19

Benson

Answer 19

Family breakdown is much higher in cohabiting couples

Couples are more stable when they are married because they have made a commitment to each other

Benson believes the government needs to encourage couples to marry through social policy

Question 20

Critique of New Right Perspective:

Answer 20

Faminist Oakley (1997): the NR wrongly assume husbands and wives roles are fixed in biology - cross cultural studies show great variation on the roles played by women in the family

Smart (2011) argues that cohabitation is more common among poorer people, so poverty is more likely to be the factor that causes relationship breakdown, not the decision not to marry

Question 21

Cereal packet family - Functionalism

Answer 21

he functionalist ideas about the nuclear family is often referred to as the Cereal Packet family
This is because of the way it has traditionally been used to advertise cereals.
This is an idea based on the 1950s version of the family and household, ignoring the fact that the families have changed in structure and diversity.
For example, this stereotypical view of the family does not take into account same-sex relationships.

Question 22

Ann Oakley (1982) Cealreal Packet Family

Answer 22

described the cereal packet image of the family as one in which ‘conventional families are nuclear families composed of legally married couples, voluntarily choosing the parenthood of one or more (but not too many) children. While Feminist Barrie Thorne (1992) attacked this image for being ‘monolithic’ as it ignores diversity in family structures.

Question 23

FAMILY DIVERSITY IS DETRIMENTAL TO SOCIETY

Answer 23

Only one correct family type – the patriarchal, nuclear family with a clear-cut division of labour between the husband and wife (instrumental and expressive).

Question 24

Chester (1985): The Neo-Conventional Nuclear Family

Answer 24

FAMILY DIVERSITY ISN’T AS SIGNIFICANT OR AS WIDESPREAD AS PEOPLE THINK

Dominant family type is still nuclear - most people don’t choose alternative long-term

Most still aspire to the nuclear family (see it as ideal)

Question 25

Chester - life cycle

Answer 25

• Due to our life cycle, most people will still be part of a nuclear family for a major part of their lives

Question 26

Rapoport & Rapoport (1982): Five Types of Family Diversity

Answer 26

Rapoport & Rapoport argue that society is now a ‘Pluralistic Society’ where lifestyles & culture are diverse.

1) Organisational Diversity:
2) Cultural Diversity:
3) Social Class Diversity:
4) Life-Stage Diversity:
5) Generational Diversity:

Question 27

Rappaport and Rappaport

1) Organisational Diversity:

Answer 27

Refers to how ‘Roles’ are organised eg. Dual worker families
Morgan (1996): Family Practices
Morgan highlights how different families have different practices depending on the attitudes, beliefs and values that individuals hold.

Question 28

Rappaport and Rappaport

2) Cultural Diversity:
Different cultural, religious & ethnic groups have different family structures.

Answer 28

British Caribbean families: Emphasise individual choice and independence. This is reflected in low rates of marriage and high rates of lone parenthood. British-Caribbeans are less likely to live with a partner than white or Asian people and those who do have a partner are less likely to have married them.

South Asian families: Extended families are more common amongst south Asian families. Families are more often based on traditional ‘values’ such as marriage, births within marriage, women’s roles as housewives and having large numbers of children. Arranged marriages are also more common. The marriage rate among South Asian people is higher than any other group with many women being married by the age of 25. Divorce rates are low.

South Asian families tend to be larger than other families in the UK, both in terms of greater numbers of children remaining in the family home and in terms of multi-generation extended family units that incorporate older family members. It usually centres on the male side of the family with sons’ remaining in the family home when they get married along with their wife and any future children.

Question 29

Rappaport and Rappaport

3) Social Class Diversity:

Answer 29

Different Classes = Differences in family structure, roles & child-rearing practices.

Classic extended families are more likely to be found in working class communities and privatised nuclear families in middle class.
Differences in income and wealth will also lead to different lifestyles, life chances, possibly in parenting practices and the household division of labour.
Regional diversity shows how family life differs based on geographical location. For instance, the highest proportion of over 65 year olds are found on the coast, extended families are found in older industrial areas and lone parent families are typically high in inner city areas.

Question 30

Rappaport and Rappaport

4) Life-Stage Diversity:

Answer 30

Individuals are likely to experience living in many different family types throughout their lives

Allen and Crow (2001) point out that in contemporary societies, the traditional family life cycle and family life course have changed dramatically.

Question 31

Rappaport and Rappaport

4) Life-Stage Diversity:

Answer 31

Hareven (1978): Life-Course Analysis
Hareven suggests that there is no point in talking about ‘fixed’ families as there is flexibility and variation throughout people’s lives. As such any one person could live in several different types of families & households throughout their lives – families are therefore ‘Ever-Changing’.

Question 32

Rappaport and Rappaport

5) Generational Diversity:

Answer 32

Young people face growing uncertainty in their personal lives about what they should do and when they should do it.
Heath (2004) has described how young people are less likely to follow the traditional life-cycle route and instead choose alternative options.
At age 30 one in 10 men and one in 20 women are still living at home. This is referred to as ‘kippers’ (Kids living in Parents Pockets!)
Shared households of friends are also more common and there may even be a sense of greater loyalty between friends than family. This means that they are sometimes referred to as ‘families of choice.’
This exemplifies some of the alternative living arrangements that young people explore before choosing to ‘settle down’.

Question 33

Budgeon (2011) cristiscims of the individualisation thesis

Answer 33

argues that the individualisation thesis exaggerates the amount of freedom of choice that people have. In reality, traditional norms still exist and influence our lives, including family life.

Individualisation sees people as disembedded, ‘free-floating’ individuals, whereas the personal life perspective argues that although we do have choices about personal relationships, these are made within a social context - they’re affected by the situation we’re in e.g. whether we have kids

It ignores how structural factors (e.g. class inequalities, patriarchal gender norms) limit and shape our relationship choices.

Question 34

critiscms of the individiualision thesis CADGES

Answer 34

May notes, Giddens & Beck’s view is an ‘idealised version of a white, middle-class man’ and not everyone has same privilege as this group top make free choices about relationships.

Question 35

THE CONNECTEDNESS THESIS

Answer 35

This is personal life alternative to the individualisation thesis

Smart argues that we are fundamentally social beings who choices are made in ‘web of connectedness’…‘where lives have become interwoven and embedded, it becomes impossible for relationships to simply end’ - this goes against the view that we are ‘free floating’ independent individuals with limitless choice

The thesis, sees us living in networks of existing relationships and interwoven personal history’s which influence our range of options and choices

Question 36

Finch and Mason’s (1993) study

Answer 36

highlighted although individuals have some negotiation, they also embedded in connections and obligations (e.g. extended family), which restrict their freedom of choice

Findings challenge the idea of ‘pure’ relationships as families usually include more than just the couple that Gidden’s focusses on e.g. ex-couples can remain connected (e.g. through children)

Question 37

ROLE OF CLASS & GENDER IN THE PERSONAL LIFE PERSPECTIVE

Answer 37

Gender norms usually dictate children stay with mother after divorce which may limit opportunity to form new relationships. In contrast, men are freer to form relationships & families

Men are generally better paid than women which gives them greater freedom of choice in relationships

Relative powerlessness of women and children compared to men means they lack freedom to choose so remain trapped in relationships

Question 38

THE POWER OF STRUCTURES - Einasdottir (2011)

Answer 38

women are still expected to be heterosexual: while lesbianism now tolerated, heteronormativity (dominance of heterosexual norms) results in many lesbians not coming out as they feel it limits their relationship and lifestyle

Personal life perspective emphasises the importance of social structures in shaping the freedoms many people now have to create diversity

Thus while more freedom of choice, structures continue to play important role inequality restricting individual choice

Question 38

THE POWER OF STRUCTURES

Answer 38

May argues that structures like class, gender and family not have disappeared (as Beck and Giddens argued) but have merely been reshaped

E.g. while women have made advances in relation to voting, divorce, employment etc, this does not mean they ‘have it all’.