Topic 5 - Changing family patterns Flashcards

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1
Q

1969 - The Divorce Law Reform Act (came into effect in 1971)

A

This made irretrievable breakdown of marriage the sole ground for divorce.
This means proving that the marriage had broken down beyond repair – could be established by proving unreasonable behaviour, adultery, desertion, separation.
Divorce was available after 2 years of agreed separation or 5 years if one partner did not agree.

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2
Q

1984 - The Matrimonial and Family Proceeding Act

A

The minimum period when divorce could be sought was reduced from 3 years to 1.
This led to a record increase in divorces between 1984-1985.

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3
Q

1996 - The Family Law Act (came into effect in 1999)

A

This increased the amount of time a couple had to be married (from 12 months to 18 months) before a divorce could be granted
Couples also had to attend compulsory counselling (although this was abandoned eventually as it was found that people were more likely to divorce afterwards, even if unsure initially)
Couples also had to agree on children’s wishes and financial arrangements

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4
Q

Changes in the law evaluation

A

Although a number of policies have been implemented which have caused the nuclear family to die, some would argue that have also allowed the nuclear family to re-emerge in more postmodern forms.
For example, although the Divorce Reform Act 1969 has supported a rise in divorces, it also allows for remarriages, with 4/10 divorces being remarriages.

Consequently, society has seen a growth in reconstituted families.

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5
Q

Secularisation

A

Functionalism state the church has lost its power to influence individuals morals.
Functionalists suggest society has progressed and it is no longer viewed as sinful to live in family types outside the traditional nuclear family e.g. singlehood or single parent families.
As a result, the church’s opposition to divorce carries less weight & people are less likely to consider religious teachings when making such a personal decision.

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6
Q

➜ An important change since the 1960s, is the decline in stigma attached to divorce.

A

Mitchell and Goody (1997)
As stigma declines and divorces becomes more socially acceptable, couples become more willing to resort to divorce as a means of solving their marital problems - divorce has now been ‘normalised’.

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7
Q

Evualtion of secularisation

A

Ballard: In British Asian communities, divorce is still stigmatised (looked down on) often due to religion. Many stay in unhappy marriages.

Ballard found south Asian people tend to be more traditional in their family values than – they place high value on marriage and rarely divorce

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8
Q

Rising Expectations

A

Functionalist sociologist Fletcher (1966) argues that the higher expectations people place on marriage today are a major cause of rising divorce rates.

Higher expectations make couples less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage.

Giddens: shift from romantic love to a ‘confluent love’ – no longer forever and one and only, both partners have mutual satisfaction and stay because they want to.

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9
Q

evaluation of rising expectations

A

Feminists argue functionalists ignore the oppression women face and how it is the main cause of divorce. Functionalists fail to explain why is it mainly women who seek divorce and not men.

Postmodernist Beck argues the increased choice in relationships has led to a rise in relationship breakdown, personal upset and feelings of unhappiness.

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10
Q

Changes in the position of women

A

One reason for women’s willingness to seek a divorce is improvements in their economic position - they are no longer financially dependent on their husband.

Girls greater success and ambition helps them to achieve better paid jobs.

Welfare benefits mean women can obtain money without their husband.

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11
Q

Liberal Feminist Sharpe (1994)

A

Girls are now more ambitious and have higher aspirations, which has led to a shift in their priorities. They are no longer fixated on marriage, children and the idea of the traditional housewife role, rather they are career driven.

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12
Q

Changes in the position of women
New Right

A

Murray – the welfare system has made it possible for women to have children outside the traditional nuclear family, as they no longer require financial stability from marriage.

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13
Q

Evaluation of Rising divorce rate

A

People are still getting married, however at a later stage of life. The average age for men and women to marry today is between 30-32.

Remarriage is still popular. ONS 2012: 19% of marriages are remarriages for one partner and 16% are for both partners.

Murray (1984) argues women have not gained greater independence, rather they rely on welfare benefits to support them.

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14
Q

Femenist Expliantion for rising divorce

A

Hochschild (1997) - At work, women feel valued; however this is not the case in the home. Men’s resistance to doing housework builds frustration and makes marriages less stable and leading to divorce.

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15
Q

Evaluation of the Femenist expliantion

A

Cook and Gash (2010) found no evidence that working women are more likely to divorce. They argue that this is because working has now become the accepted norm for women.

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16
Q

Modernity and Individualisation

A

Beck (1992) and Giddens (1992) – argue in a modern society, traditional norms, such as the duty to remain with the same partner for life, lose their hold over individuals.

Individuals pursue their own self-interests, and so relationships become more fragile.

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17
Q

Evaluation of modernity and individualism

A

Some sociologists argue that modernity encourages people to adopt a neoliberal, consumerist identity, based on the idea of freedom to follow one’s own self-interest.

This pursuit of self interest is likely to pull spouses apart.

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18
Q

The New Right
persepective on divorce

A

Undermines marriage

Damages nuclear family

Grows underclass

Increases welfare dependent lone parents (usually female)

Leaves children (usually boys) without role models

Has a negative effect on education & health

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19
Q

Feminist perspective on divorce rate

A

Supports women breaking free of patriarchal marriages

Shows how women are moving away from traditional ideals on nuclear family

Highlights women’s improved economic position

Shows decline in stigma associated with divorce & lone parenting

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20
Q

Postmodernist perspective on divorce

A

Illustrates freedom of choice to pursue own interest

People have choice to end relationship when doesn’t meet needs

Helps establish more diverse family diversity types

Removes stigma associated with divorce

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21
Q

Functionalist perspective on divorce

A

Shows evolution of social institutions which still remain important in society

Highlights how people have higher expectations for marriage

Divorce does not mean marriage is broken more people want an ideal marriage which can benefit society

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22
Q

Interactionalist perspective on divorce

A

Can’t generalise divorce as individuals experiences are different

Divorce can provide escape from toxicity of marriage

Can have negative impacts (e.g. financial & psychological)

Can be neutral impact and be seen as “one transaction amongst others in life course”

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23
Q

Functionalism and divorce

A

Ronald Fletcher (1966) argued that the higher expectations people place on marriage today are a major cause of rising divorce rates. Higher expectations make couples today less willing to tolerate unhappy marriage.

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24
Q

Feminism and divorce

A

Arlie Hochschild (1997): at work women feel valued. At home, men’s continuing resistance to housework is a source of frustration and makes marriage less stable.

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25
Q

New Right and divorce

A

Dennis and Erdos: divorce is leading to families without fathers. Boys are growing up without a positive male role model in their life. As a result, the trend is that boys turn to anti-social behaviour finding fulfilment in gangs and criminal behaviour.

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26
Q

Postmodernism and divorce

A

Beck and Gernsheim: rising divorce rates are the product of a rapidly changing world in which the traditional rules, rituals and traditions of love, romance and relationships no longer apply.

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27
Q

Interactionism and divorce

A

David Morgan (1996) argues that we cannot generalise about the meaning of divorce because every individual’s interpretation of it is different.

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28
Q

Patterns of Marriage

A
  • Marriage Rates are at their lowest since the 1920s
  • Re-Marriage however is rising
  • People are marrying at older ages.
  • ‘Church-based’ marriages are declining.
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29
Q

Reasons for decline in marriage: Changing social attitudes and reduced social stigma

A

Few people now regard cohabiting, remaining single and having children outside marriage as morally wrong, and there is reduced social stigma attached to these alternatives to marriage
E.g. 1989 - 70% believed that couples who wanted children should get married but by 2012, only 42% thought so

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30
Q

Evaluation of Changing social attitudes and reduced social stigma as a reason for decilne in marriage

A

British Social Attitudes survey (2000) found that only 9% saw marriage as a ‘pointless piece of paper’ whilst 72% felt it was still important

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31
Q

Reasons for decline in marriage: The decline of religious influence on people’s lives (secularisation)

A

Growing secularisation has meant the declining influence of religion’s favouring of marriage and less condemnation of cohabitation
Only 30% of marriages now occur in a church (and often this is just to have a pretty venue rather than the religious element!)

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32
Q

Evaluation of secularisation as a reason for decline in marriage

A

However, Britain is becoming increasingly ethnically and culturally diverse and minority ethnic groups tend to be more religious for a variety of reasons and therefore marriage remains a popular option among many groups

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33
Q

Reasons for decline in marriage: Changes in the position of women and feminism

A

More economic independence and career prospects gives women more freedom to choose their relationships
Higher expectations of relationships and rejection of the patriarchal features, which, as feminists point out, still dominate women’s roles in marriage (such as the dual burden)

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34
Q

Evaluation of changes in the position of women for decline in marriage

A

E: Women might have careers but many still value marriage – they’re just doing it later!

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35
Q

Reasons for decline in marriage: Reducing risk (postmodernist argument)

A

Beck argues that we now live in a ‘risk society’ whereby people face increased risks and uncertainty as they are constantly making choices no longer controlled by social norms
More people are avoiding the ‘risk’ involved in long term legal commitments like marriage, particularly in the face of rising divorce rates - they’re put off marriage because of the high divorce rate

36
Q

Evaluation of reducing risk as a reason for deciline in marriage

A

Increased freedom brought by a postmodern world has given same sex couples the option to marry, and marriage rates in this group are increasing, not decreasing

37
Q

Reasons for decline in marriage: Marriage is Expensive

A

The average cost of a wedding in the UK is £20,000. In a time of sky-high house prices, and particularly during a cost of living crisis, a wedding may not be viewed a priority when making decisions about where money is spent
This is paired with declining stigma of cohabiting and having children outside of marriage, allowing couples to make this decision without fear of social disapproval

38
Q

Remarriages

A

The main reason for the increase in remarriage is the rise in divorce
The two have grown together because the rising number of divorces provides a supply of people available to remarry
This has led many to become serial monogamists who marry - divorce - remarry - repeat

39
Q

Webb (2008):

A

There were over
2 million
cohabitating
couples
in Britain
This figure
doubled by 2021

40
Q

Why might people choose to cohabit?

A

Changing Social Attitudes & Stigma

Increased Independence of women

Practicality e.g. Financially Easier than living alone

Secularisation

High Divorce Rate

41
Q

Increased cohabitation rates reflect the decline in stigma to sex outside of marriage.

A

In 1989, only 62% of people agreed that premarital sex was wrong at all but by 2000, 44% took this view.

42
Q

The young are more likely to accept cohabitation;

A

88% of 18-24 years old believed it was ok for a couple to live together without getting married, but only 40% aged over 65 agreed

43
Q

Increased opportunities for women

A

increase their independence and so some may opt for cohabitation

44
Q

Secularisation has an impact;

A

young people with no religion were more likely to accept cohabitation

45
Q

Robert Chester (1985):

A

Argues that cohabitation acts as a trial marriage – we are seeing the rise of the Neo-Conventional Nuclear Family.

46
Q

Andre Bejin (1985):

A

Cohabitation is a way of negotiating more equal relationships where both partners retain some independence.

47
Q

Ernestina Coast (2006):

A

3/4 of cohabiting couples stated that they intend to marry.

48
Q

Chester (1985)

A

Marriage is not disappearing, it is just occurring later in life, usually after a period of cohabitation

49
Q

Fletcher (1988)

A

argues that cohabitation and births outside of marriage conceal what are in fact stable ‘nuclear families’ - they are just not legitimised by marriage

50
Q

British Social Attitudes Survey (2000)

A

only 9% of people saw no point in getting married

51
Q

People increasingly choose to live alone because of:

A

Increasing wealth: people in wealthier countries are more likely to choose to live alone.
Improved communications: makes it easier for solo-livers to keep in contact with friends and family while living alone.
Mass urbanisation: higher density populations = easier to connect with other people.
Increased longevity: following a relationship ending or one partner dying, there is less desire to pair-up again!

52
Q

Klinengerg (2013)

A

living alone is a merk of distinction not a social faliure

people who live alone are postive about it

53
Q
A
54
Q

Levin (2004)

A

To be a couple is no longer dependent upon sharing a common household

LATS

55
Q

There has been significant social and legal
acceptance of same sex relationships in the UK
how did this happen

A

Cancellation of section 28 - series of laws across Britain that prohibited the promotion of homosexuality in schools
Same-sex marriage
Age of consent for homosexual men lowered to 16
Adoption allowed for same-sex couples
Decriminalisation of male homosexuality for adults over 21
Civil Partnership Act

56
Q

Jeffery Weeks (1999)

A

Weeks suggested homosexual people create families based on the idea of ‘friendship as kinship’ where friendship becomes a type of kinship (family) network.
He described these as ‘chosen families’ which offer same security as heterosexual families

57
Q

Kath Weston (1992)

A

describe same-sex cohabitation as ‘quasi-marriage’ with many gay couples cohabiting with stable partners

This contrasts to the gay lifestyle of 1970s which largely rejected monogamy and family life in favour of casual relationships

58
Q

Allan & Crow

A

argue that before Same-sex marriage and Civil partnerships were introduced, same sex couples had to negotiate the committment and responsibilities in their relationship more than married hetersexual couples, who had roles and commitments clearly outlined for them

This made same-sex relationships more flexible and less stable than heterosexual relationships

59
Q

Anna Einasdottir (2011)

A

suggest some homosexual couples feared legal recognition of their relationship
They thought it may limit the flexibility and negotiability of relationships.
Instead of adopting a heterosexual relationship norms, they wish their relationship to remain different.

60
Q

Living Apart Together (LATs)

A
  • LATs refers to individuals in long term relationships who choose to live in separate households
  • They are unburned by structural commitments of married or cohabiting relationships (eg. Shared resources, financial and legal entanglements) which make ending relationships traumatic
  • It can be seen as a new family form – an alternative to marriage or cohabitation which challenges the traditional concept of the nuclear family
61
Q

Duncan & Phillips (2013):

A

Public attitudes towards LATs are favorable with 20% seeing LATs as their ideal relationship

62
Q

Reasons for increase in LATs

A
  • Growing individualisation and choice in relationships – people seeking ‘what they want’ and not have to put others first
  • Risk avoidance: partners may want to minimise the risk of divorce or re-creating similar situations that may have led to previous relationship break down
  • Change in labour market means some couples may find it harder to find work in the same area
  • Advances in modern
    technologies (video
    chat, emails, mobiles)
    mean that partners can
    remain in close contact
  • even more so since COVID
63
Q

Why have LPF’s increased?

A

Increase in divorce
Increase in cohabitation
Non/Never married mothers
Benefits availability
Greater economic independence of women
Reproductive technology

64
Q

LPF: Increase in divorce

A

LPF’s rose dramatically after 1971 which was in large part due to the Divorce Reform Act (1971)

65
Q

LPF: Increase in cohabitation

A

Cohabiting couples are twice as likely to end their relationship than married couples (Haskey, 2001)

66
Q

LPF: Non/Never married mothers

A

Children born outside of marriage or cohabitation
Less stigma attached and greater tolerance

67
Q

LPF: Benefits availability

A

The Welfare benefits available to lone parents means that families are able to survive with only one adult

68
Q

LPF: Greater economic independence of women

A

More job opportunities available for women with welfare help towards childcare costs

69
Q

LPF: Reproductive technology

A

Women are able to undergo IVF treatment allowing them to have a child without a partner

70
Q

90% of LPF’s are headed by women why?

A
  • Women are often seem as more ‘expressive’ or nurturing
  • Divorce courts often give custody to mothers
  • Men may be less willing to give up work to care for children
71
Q

Nailing the myths created by the media:
Teenage single mothers

A

Less than 2% of lone mothers are teenagers
Teenage pregnancies have fallen nationally by 9.4 per cent since 1999.
Actual average age of a lone parent is 39! (2022)

72
Q

Some mother’s remain single by choice

A

Renvoize (1985) found professional women were able to support child without fathers involvement
Cashmore (1985) found some working-class mothers preferred to live on welfare benefits without a partner, often because they had experienced abuse

73
Q

BLackstone (2019)

A

Increasinf trend towards women chossing to have a life without children

74
Q

Ferri and Smith (1998)

A

found the stepfamilies are very similar to first families and step parent involvement in childrearing and care is positive.

75
Q

Step families are at greater risk of poverty, why?

A

There are often more children and usually have financial responsibility for two families: 15% of a man’s wage goes to the previous family.

76
Q

Allan and Crow (2001)

A

they may face issues regarding dividing time and loyalty. Contact with the non-resident parent can cause tension and conflict

77
Q

Explinations for Step families

A
  • Individualisation ➜ Individuals have the freedom and choice to live in a family structure that suits them.
  • Family Legislation ➜ The Divorce Reform Act (1969) has led to an increase in divorce and separations, leading to an increase in SPFs and thus the creation of step families.
  • Rising Expectations ➜ as expectations are higher, people are leaving relationships that do not give them happiness and fulfilment and looking for one that does (pure relationship), leading to stepfamilies.
  • Feminist Explanation ➜ women who are experiencing a dual burden or emotion work will lead their marriage/relationship to seek one which is more equal. Also, more stepfamilies include children from a woman’s previous relationship than a man’s because children are more likely to remain with their mother
78
Q

ETHNIC DIFFERENCE IN FAMILY PATTERNS

A

Immigration into Britain has helped created ethnic diversity within the UK. However, ethnic diversity varies by region

The most ethnically diverse region in England and Wales was London, where 55% are ethnic minorities (including white non-British)

In contrast the North East had the least ethnic diversity with 93.6% being White British

79
Q

BLACK FAMILIES

A

Black Caribbean and Black African people have a higher proportion of lone-parent families (51%).
Mirza (1997) argues that this reflects the high value that black women place on independence

Reynolds (2010) flags that ‘lone’ is misleading as many couples are in LAT relationships and therefore the percentage of ‘lone’ parents is actually much lower

There is also often high father involvement even if the couple are not together

80
Q

ASIAN FAMILIES

A

Asian families (e.g. Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Indian) tend to be larger than other ethnic groups (4.4, 4.3, 3 per household compared to 2.4 in White British and Black British)

Households can contain three generations, but majority are nuclear
Larger household sizes are partly driven by younger age profile of British Asians in childbearing groups

Larger household can reflect Asian culture which placed value on extended families

Ballard (1982) found extended family ties provide source of support when migrating to the UK in 1950-60s and often families live together at these times with kinship providing support
Asian families are still most likely group to live in extended family units

81
Q

Tracy Reynolds Analysing the
Black Family (2002)

A

Reynolds rejects the idea of lone-parent black
Caribbean families having no ‘father figure’.
* Not all Caribbean families are matrifocal –
greater diversity of family types based upon
cultural traditions of Caribbean islands.
* Jamaican families less conformist to
traditional models; nuclear families more
common in Barbados and Antigua.
* Lone-parent females may be in visiting
relationships – where they have a male
partner who lives outside of the family
home, but provides support and takes
an active part in family life when
present.

82
Q

Charles (2008)

A

Study of Swansea found three-generation families all living under one roof is all but extinct accept among the Bangladeshi community

83
Q

Willmott (1988)

A

argue family not disappeared instead has transformed into ‘dispersed extended family’ where families use technology to maintain contact

84
Q

Chamberlain (1999)

A

supported this as found Caribbean families despite geographic dispersal kept in contact with multiple nuclear families (e.g. high contact between extended family) and continues to exist as performs functions for its members

85
Q

THE ‘BEANPOLE’ FAMILY

A

Brannen (2003) describes the ‘beanpole family’ as ‘long and thin’
It extends vertically (grandparents) but not horizontally (Uncles & cousins etc)
Charles found high level of contact and support between mother’s and daughters but not between siblings
This family type is driven by two demographic changes:
Increased life expectancy
Smaller family sizes
With family sizes decreasing and life expectancy continuing the increase, this is set to continue

86
Q

OBLIGATIONS ON RELATIVES

A

Despite shifts in family many people still feel obligation to extended kin. Finch & Mason (1993) found 90% people had given / received financial help and around 50% had cared for a sick relative

87
Q

Gender in family

A

They also found variability on expectations with females expected to take more on. Cheal (2002) argued a hierarchy of preferred help exist:
1. Spouse
2. Daughter
3. Daughter-in-law
4. Son
5. Other relatives

Cheal notes, elderly women are usually cared by female relatives over male. However, female rarely chosen to provide money