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GCSE Biology > Topic 5b - The Endocrine System > Flashcards

Topic 5b - The Endocrine System Flashcards

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1
Q

What are hormones?

A

Hormones are chemical messengers which travel in the blood to activate target cells.

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2
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

Hormones are produced in and secreted by various glands, called endocrine glands. These glands make up the endocrine system.

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3
Q

How does the endocrine system use hormones?

A

The endocrine system uses hormones to react to changes in the environment or changes inside the body.

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4
Q

What are the 6 glands in the endocrine system?

A
  • Pituitary gland
  • Thyroid gland
  • Pancreas
  • Testes
  • Adrenal gland
  • Ovaries
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5
Q

Where is TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone) produced, and what is its target organ?

A
  • Produced in thyroid gland
  • Target organ in thyroid gland
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6
Q

Where is ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) produced, and what is its target organ?

A
  • Produced in pituitary gland
  • Target organ is kidneys
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7
Q

Where is FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) produced, and what is its target organ?

A
  • Produced in pituitary gland
  • Target organ is ovaries
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8
Q

Where is LH (luteinising hormone) produced, and what is its target organ?

A
  • Produced in pituitary gland
  • Target organ is ovaries
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9
Q

Where are insulin and glucagon produced, and what are their target organs?

A
  • Produced in pancreas
  • Target organs are muscles and liver
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10
Q

Where is adrenaline produced, and what are its target organs?

A
  • Produced in adrenal gland
  • Target organs are heart, liver and muscles
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11
Q

Where is oestrogen produced, and what are its target organs?

A
  • Produced in ovaries
  • Target organs are ovaries, uterus and pituitary gland
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12
Q

Where is progesterone produced, and what is its target organ?

A
  • Produced in ovaries
  • Target organ is uterus
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13
Q

Where is testosterone produced, and what are its target organ?

A
  • Produced in testes
  • Target organs are male reproductive organs
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14
Q

How are hormones and nerve impulses different in terms of speed, duration and effectors?

A
  • Speed; hormones travel slower, and nerve impulses travel faster
  • Duration; the effects of hormones last longer, and the effects of nerve impulses are shorter
  • Effectors; hormones target cells in particular tissues, and nerve impulses have motor neurones which often end in muscles
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15
Q

What is the pituitary gland? (3)

A
  • The pituitary gland is a ‘master gland’.
  • It secretes several hormones in response to body conditions.
  • These hormones then act on other glands, stimulating the release of other hormones.
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16
Q

What are changes in blood glucose levels monitored by?

A

The pancreas.

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17
Q

What is insulin?

A

Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas. It decreases the blood glucose level when it gets too high.

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18
Q

What is the 4 step process of the body’s reaction to blood glucose levels being too high?

A
  1. Blood with too much glucose, is detected by pancreas.
  2. Insulin secreted by pancreas into the blood.
  3. Insulin causes body cells to take up more glucose from the blood. Cells in the liver and muscles can take up glucose and convert it into a storage molecule (polysaccharide) called glycogen.
  4. This causes the blood glucose level to fall back to the optimum level.
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19
Q

What is glucagon?

A

Glucagon is a hormone produced by the pancreas. It increases the blood glucose level when it gets too low.

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20
Q

What is the 4 step process of the body’s reaction to blood glucose levels being too low?

A
  1. If a person’s blood glucose level decreases, the fall is detected by the pancreas.
  2. The pancreas responds by producing glucagon, which is secreted into the blood.
  3. Glucose can be stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen. Glucagon causes the glycogen to be converted back into glucose, which enters the blood.
  4. This causes the blood glucose levels to rise.
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21
Q

When do type 1 and 2 diabetes occur?

A

They occur when the normal hormonal control of blood glucose concentration is disrupted.

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22
Q

What is type 1 diabetes?

A

Type 1 diabetes is a condition where your immune system attacks the pancreas, in turn destroying the cells that produce insulin, meaning little or no insulin is produced. The result is that a person’s blood glucose can rise to a level that can kill them.

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23
Q

What is type 1diabetes characterised by?

A

It is characterised by uncontrolled high blood glucose levels.

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24
Q

How is type 1 diabetes usually treated?

A

It is normally treated by monitoring blood glucose levels and injecting human insulin throughout the day (particularly after meals consumed).

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25
Q

Who does type 1 diabetes affect?

A

A relatively small % of the population - mainly young people.

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26
Q

What is type 2 diabetes?

A

In Type 2 diabetes the body cells become resistant to insulin produced by the pancreas, so much so that the pancreas can’t compensate regardless of how much insulin there is.

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27
Q

What are the risk factors of type 2 diabetes? (5)

A
  • If other family members have it
  • Age
  • Weight => 80-85% of people with type 2 diabetes are overweight
  • Lack of exercise
  • Lack of healthy diet
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28
Q

Why is obesity a risk factor for type 2 diabetes?

A

Because a person who is obese may consume a diet high in carbohydrates, and over-production of insulin results in resistance developing.

29
Q

How is type 2 diabetes usually treated?

A

A low-carbohydrate controlled diet and a regular exercise regime, to reduce the need for insulin.

30
Q

How can metformin be used to treat type 2 diabetes?

A

Metformin allows your muscle and liver cells to become sensitive, and no longer resistant, to insulin.

31
Q

Why is metformin usually unsuccessful in treating type 1 diabetes?

A

In type 1 diabetes the pancreas no longer secretes insulin and therefore metformin cannot increase sensitivity of body cells to insulin as there is no insulin present.

32
Q

How can diabetes be tested for? (3)

A
  • At a high blood glucose level, glucose begins to move into the urine.
  • This means diabetes can be tested for by looking for glucose in a urine sample.
  • A blood test for glucose can confirm the diagnosis.
33
Q

How does water enter the body? (2)

A
  • In food and drinks/liquids (diet)
  • As a result of aerobic respiration
34
Q

How does water leave the body? (3)

A
  • In sweat
  • Through exhalation of air from lungs
  • Urine and faeces
35
Q

What do you lose from your skin when you sweat?

A
  • Water
  • Ions (Na+, K+ etc.)
  • Urea
36
Q

Can your body control how much of certain substances you lose via sweat, and exhalation?

A

No

37
Q

How else are water, ions and urea lost? Can your body control this?

A

Water, ions and urea are also lost via the kidneys and your body does have control over how much of these substances are lost via this route.

38
Q

Why would eating too much salt affect body cells if not controlled? (4)

A
  • If you eat too much salt, your body will contain a hypertonic solution containing salt, in comparison to the cell.
  • The body cells will then carry out osmosis down the concentration gradient of water.
  • This would therefore be out of the body cells due to the body’s hypertonic solution of salt.
  • As the cells lose lots of water, they will then become shrivelled.
39
Q

Why would less water be lost on a hot day compared to a cold day? (3)

A
  • On a hot day, your body will sweat more and in turn lose more water. You will also breathe more heavily, meaning you lose water via exhalation.
  • Your body has no control over these processes.
  • Therefore your kidney, which can control the amount of substances your body loses, will account for this by allowing you to lose less water in your urine to maintain the optimum water level.
40
Q

What is urea?

A

Urea is a waste product from the break down of protein, as we cannot store protein in the body.

41
Q

What does the digestion of protein from the diet result in?

A

The digestion of protein from the diet results in excess amino acids which need to be excreted safely, as they cannot be stored by the body in the same way that excess glucose can.

42
Q

What is deamination?

A

Deamination is the process of breaking down excess protein and it predominantly occurs in the liver.

43
Q

How does deamination work? (3)

A
  • Enzymes in the liver split up amino acid molecules, with the part containing carbon turned into glycogen and the other part containing nitrogen, is turned into ammonia.
  • This is why we say the amino acid had been deaminated.
  • Ammonia is toxic to cells and so it is immediately converted to urea which can be transported around the body via the blood safely for excretion by the kidneys.
44
Q

What is the function of the renal artery?

A

Carries oxygenated blood (containing urea and salts) to the kidneys.

45
Q

What is the function of the renal vein?

A

Carries deoxygenated blood (that has had urea and excess salts removed) away from the kidneys.

46
Q

What is the function of the kidney?

A

Regulates water content of blood and filters blood.

47
Q

What is the function of the ureter?

A

Carries urine from kidneys to bladder.

48
Q

What is the function of the bladder?

A

Temporarily stores urine.

49
Q

What is the function of the urethra?

A

Releases urine outside of the body.

50
Q

What is a nephron? (2)

A
  • Each kidney contains thousands of tiny tubes, known as nephrons.
  • The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney - the nephrons are responsible for the formation of urine.
51
Q

What can be found within each nephron?

A

The glomerulus, which is within the Bowman’s capsule (first part of nephron tubule which cups the glomerulus).

52
Q

Where does the nephron tubules leak into?

A

The collecting duct.

53
Q

What are the main 3 stages of urine formation?

A
  • Filtration
  • Selective reabsorption
  • The formation of urine
54
Q

How does the stage of filtration work => first stage? (3)

A
  • Small molecules are filtered out and pass into the nephron tubule.
  • These small molecules include ureas, water, ions, amino acids and glucose.
  • However large molecules, such as plasma proteins and red blood cells, are too big to fit through the capillary wall and remain in the blood.
55
Q

How does the stage of selective reabsorption work => second stage? (3)

A
  • Having filtered out small essential molecules from the blood - the kidneys must reabsorb the molecules which are needed.
  • Whilst also allowing those molecules which are not needed to pass out in the urine.
  • Therefore, the kidneys selectively reabsorb only those molecules which the body needs back in the bloodstream.
56
Q

What molecules does the kidney need to selectively reabsorb back into the bloodstream? (3)

A
  • All glucose which was originally filtered out.
  • As much water as body needs to maintain constant water level in blood plasma.
  • As many ions as body needs to maintain constant balance of mineral ions in blood plasma.
57
Q

How does the stage urine formation work => third/ last stage? (2)

A
  • Molecules which aren’t selectively reabsorbed (urea, excess water and ions) continue along nephron tubule as urine.
  • This eventually passes down to the bladder.
58
Q

What does the 3 stage process of urine formation allow the kidney to do?

A

In carrying out these processes, the kidney is able to fulfil its functions of regulating the water and ion balance of the blood plasma, as well as keeping the level of urea low.

59
Q

What is kidney filtrate?

A

The liquid found in the nephron tubule.

60
Q

What happens if the water content of the blood is low => urine? (6)

A
  • Too much salt or sweating.
  • Water content of blood is low/ highly concentrated body fluids.
  • Pituitary gland produces more ADH.
  • As there is a lot of ADH present, the collecting duct is highly permeable to water.
  • This means there is a high volume of water reabsorbed by the collecting ducts.
  • Low urine output => small volume of concentrated urine.
61
Q

What happens if the water content of the blood is high => urine? (6)

A
  • Too much water drunk.
  • Water content of blood is high/ low concentration of body fluids.
  • Pituitary gland produces less ADH.
  • As there is no ADH present, the collecting duct is not permeable to water.
  • This means there is a low volume of water reabsorbed by the collecting ducts.
  • High urine output => large volume of dilute urine.
62
Q

What happens if your kidneys stop working? (3)

A
  • Waste substances build up in the blood and you lose your ability to control the levels of ions and water in your body.
  • This can cause problems in the heart, bones, nervous system, stomach, mouth etc.
  • If left untreated, kidney failure will eventually result in death.
63
Q

What are the 2 main treatments for kidney failure?

A
  • Dialysis treatment
  • Kidney transplant
64
Q

How does dialysis work?

A
  • Patients are connected to a dialysis machine which acts as an artificial kidney to remove most of the urea and restore/ maintain the water and salt balance of the blood.
  • Unfiltered blood is taken from an artery in the arm, pumped into the dialysis machine and then returned to a vein in the arm.
  • Inside the machine the blood and dialysis fluid are separated by a partially permeable membrane - the blood flows in the opposite direction to dialysis fluid, allowing exchange to occur between the two where a concentration gradient exists.
65
Q

What is dialysis fluid and what’s in it? Why? (3)

A
  • Glucose should be at same concentration as glucose in blood => no net movement.
  • Ions should be equal to the normal ion concentration in the blood => ensures you have the right amount of ions.
  • Urea and salt should be missing from dialysis fluid => all urea and salt on blood moves out of blood into dialysis fluid
66
Q

What are the advantages of kidney dialysis? (6)

A
  • Allows a person with kidney failure to maintain health.
  • Reduces levels of urea => waste substances lost.
  • No change in blood glucose levels.
  • Correct water/ ion balance maintained or restored.
  • Available to all patients.
  • No need for Immunosuppressants.
67
Q

What are the disadvantages of Kidney dialysis? (7)

A
  • Unpleasant. Many patients have to have a dialysis session 3x a week and each session takes 3-4 hours.
  • Can lead to infections.
  • Can cause blood clots.
  • Have to control diet to avoid build up of particular ions.
  • Machines are expensive for NHS.
  • Patients have to limit water/ fluid intake.
  • Patients must limit salt and protein intake.
68
Q

What are the advantages of a kidney transplant? (5)

A
  • Patients cal live normal life => don’t have to watch diet.
  • Cheaper for NHS overall.
  • Only current cure for kidney disease.
  • Can skip waiting lists by relative donating a kidney.
  • Kidneys can be transplanted for alive people.
69
Q

What are the disadvantages of a kidney transplant? (5)

A
  • Long waiting lists and shortage of organ donors.
  • Even if kidney with matching tissue type is found, still possibility it will be rejected.
  • Taking immunosuppressant drugs means patient is vulnerable to other illnesses and infections.
  • Major operation => risky.
  • Kidney lasts 20 - 25 years on average.

GCSE Biology (8 decks)

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