Topic 5 - Sport and Society

Question 1

What were the characteristics of popular recreation?

Answer 1

Characteristics:
Played occasionally at festivals such as holydays.
Few, simple, unwritten rules (not just ‘no rules’).
Violent, injuries, damage to property.
Males wagering and alcohol.
Low structure, unlimited time, numbers of participants and few boundaries (‘not just unstructured’).
Limited facilities and equipment needed.
For the working classes.
Brute force rather than skill.
Local i.e. village versus village.

Question 2

How did the activities for peasants and the aristocracy , reflect pre-industrial society in the United Kingdom?

Answer 2

Reflection on society,
e.g.hunting as a sport
For the educated rural upper class.
With agreed conduct.
And plenty of free time to pursue.

e.g. Mob football
Uneducated so no written rules.
Reflected harsh lifestyles and uncivilised society.
Limited time to pursue.

Question 3

What is meant by the term social control?

Answer 3

The establishment of order, stability and good behaviour in society.

Question 4

Describe and explain the effect that the industrial revolution had on sport after 1800.

Answer 4

Time:
Initially there was hardly any time for the working population to participate in sport.
There were very long working hours for 7 days per week.
Introduction of the 1⁄2 day on Saturdays and holidays led to the development of set leisure time.

Space:
Initially there was no space for sport.
Common land was lost or not available.
Urbanisation meant that lots of people were available for teams.
And as spectators.
Purpose-built facilities were developed.
And parks and playing fields.
The working population moved to spectating rather than participation.

Travel:
Travel became available to all.
This meant that teams could now play away fixtures.
And travel to outdoor areas.
This led to problems over rules, there was then a need for national rules.

Education:
Education became compulsory.
There was a development of PE.
Along with literacy (and the expansion of the media).

Holidays:
There was less influence of the church.
Holidays becoming industrial holidays.
Business and commercial potential of sport was recognised.
Factory teams were set up and organised.
There was a reduction in the level of violence.
With animal sports (bear baiting, dog fights, cock fights) banned.
Equipment was more accessible.

Question 5

Define the terms ‘Gentleman Amateurs’ and ‘Playing Professionals’.

Answer 5

Note that the difference between the two terms was defined by English class structure in the 19th and 20th centuries.
The ‘Gentlemen Amateurs’ were members of the middle and upper classes, usually products of the English public school system,and who nominally claimed expenses when they played games such as cricket.
The ‘Playing Professionals’ were deemed to be working-class wage-earners and were paid wages by their county clubs or fees by match organisers.

Question 6

Discuss the sporting opportunities available to females in the 19th century.

Answer 6

Sport had evolved from violent activities undertaken by males in connection with the need to prepare for war, such as stave and fist fighting.
Working class women did not have the time, money or provision for sport.
Middle class women had leisure time and chose to play as long as activities were private and genteel such as lawn tennis, croquet and golf.

Question 7

What do you understand by the terms codified, regulated, and respectable in relation to rational recreation? [6 marks]

Answer 7

Codified:
The acceptance of written rules for a sport.
Which everyone who participates in the sport accepts.
These rules take over the many different versions of sports which existed previously.

Regulated:
Once rules have been accepted, playing conditions have to be controlled by referees or umpires.
Players accept that matches should be run by the rules.
Matches and competitions take place according to the rules.

Respectable:
Spectators feel that they can attend matches where there are no fights and bad behaviour.
It is an accepted part of society that people should play or attend sport.
Without any implication of criminal attachment.

Question 8

What influence did ‘non-local’ admission to the public schools and universities have on the development of rational sport? [6 marks]

Answer 8

Entry:
Boys were coming from all over the country.
Bringing different versions or experience of activities with them.

Schools:
There were seven elite boarding schools.
Eton, Harrow, Charterhouse, Rugby, Shrewsbury, Westminster, Winchester.

Melting Pot:
Boys spent over 5 years together, sharing ideas and experiences.
These were melting pots, however, because each school had different facilities or traditions or staff.
These meant that different ideas and practices were mixed up and sorted out into the games which developed into those we know today.

University:
Melting pot – two universities – Oxford and Cambridge.
But they shared contests, rules, players, (which still persists to today) for example, the boat race.

Careers:
Graduates of the universities went into society as leaders of industry or teachers or church or army, etc.
There was a major influence on the colonies.
And an influence on middle class sports clubs.
There was the social reform of passing these down to the working classes.

Question 9

Public schools, such as Rugby and Eton, played an important part in the development of rational games in society from mid 19th century onwards. Explain the role played by ‘old boys’ of such public schools in the development of rational recreation. [4 marks]

Answer 9

Note: Public school old boys were important in the development of rational recreation in a number of ways:

Many old boys returned from university as teachers to coach games such as rugby to boys at public schools.
Some old boys became vicars and spread their love of athleticism via games in their parishes.
Some old boys became factory owners. They gave facilities and set up teams to play sport and improve worker’s health and morale.
Some old boys were responsible in the setting up of National Governing Bodies (NGBs) with rules and regulations that are still valid in today’s contemporary sports and activities.

Question 10

Church organisations promoted sport amongst their local communities in the late 19th century. Explain their reasons for doing this and how they achieved it. [4 marks]

Answer 10

The church saw many working class sports as immoral, as they involved gambling and drinking. For example, cock fighting, horse racing and mob games.
This was frowned upon by the church as it was against the highly moral behaviour they wanted to develop.
By the late 19th century people had moved to towns and cities, which meant that traditional village rivalries of mob games had been lost.
With the advent of rational recreation, the attitudes of the church radically changed.
Young churchmen, as old boys of the Public Schools, set up the Boys Brigade to get boys off the streets.
Sport became an alternative to gambling and drinking, and channelled these men’s energy with religious ideals in mind.
To get more people involved in sport, the church organised competitions for people to take part in.
These developments occurred in the context of the growth of Methodism, with its reliance on a non-conformist life with absolutely no drinking and gambling.
Methodists always went to church on a Sunday, always respected their neighbours and lived a life of striving to make the best of life (to succeed in whatever was worthwhile).
The Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) introduced athletic and religious centres, and sport was used to recruit new members.
The YMCA was founded on founded on the principles of ‘muscular Christianity’ and used to improve young peoples’ social discipline and encourage people to take part in a range of organised sports.

Question 11

What was the purpose of the Clarendon Commission and how did the Clarendon Report and government legislation in the Public Schools Act of 1868 change public school life? [5 marks]

Answer 11

The Clarendon Commission was a Royal Commission established in 1861 to investigate the state of nine leading public schools in
England in the wake of complaints about the finances, buildings and management of Eton College.
The Clarendon Report was published in 1984 with general recommendations on questions of curriculum and governance.
It highlighted topics such as institutionalised fagging and bullying.
The abuse of charitable endowments by trustees.
And the dominance of Classics.
Thus providing a detailed picture of Public school life.
It advised the need to introduce mathematics and science.
As a consequence of this report, ‘The Public Schools’ Act’ was passed in 1868 which enabled the British Parliament to reform and regulate the seven Boarding schools known as EHCWWRS.
Hence improved physical, intellectual and social well-being of pupils.
Which formed a template for later expansion of boarding schools as middle class copies appeared this model throughout the country.

Question 12

Why were Oxford and Cambridge Universities able to make such an impressive contribution to elite sport in the late 19th Century? [6 marks]

Answer 12

6 marks for 6 of:
As games and sport became more important in the public schools.
Pupils would leave and go to either Oxford or Cambridge universities.
Where they wanted to continue with their sport and games.
The rules for the same sort of game (for example football) were often unwritten and were different from school to school.
The boys wanted to organise teams to play between the different colleges.
And eventually between Oxford and Cambridge.
Therefore they had to meet and decide on rules which would apply to all these games - hence codification.
This led to more regularisation of games between colleges and universities.
And the establishment of clubs outside the universities by the same young men once they had left university.
This led to leagues and games across the country with the same rules.
These young men often returned to the schools as teachers, where they changed the existing rules to the new ones, so that inter-
school games could be played.
Also, some young men joined the military, the church or the foreign service.
And spread the same games across the Empire (and hence to Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and South Africa).
This particularly accounts for the spread of rugby and cricket across the World.
And the initiation of international fixtures (tests matches).
These same ex-Oxbridge students organised and created the International Governing Bodies (IGBs) which controlled these sports.

Question 13

Participation in sports and games was a key feature of 19th century public schools. Describe three factors which lead to increased participation in physical activity by young people in public schools in Stage three of development (the ‘cult’ of athleticism). How do these factors continue to impact upon participation and performance in physical activity in schools today? [9 marks]

Answer 13

6 marks for 6 of:
An increased participation due to:
Improved quality of facilities such as games’ fields.
Increased quality of purpose built facilities. For example, squash courts.
Money donated by old boys to support sporting facilities and programme.
Specialist coaching from assistant masters and/or professional coaches.
Compulsory games.
House participation.
Inter-school fixtures.
Belief in character building value of games. For example, leadership, loyalty, teamwork.
Belief in health and fitness of participants/fresh air and healthy lifestyles.
Headmaster support.
Enthusiasm of young teachers who had ‘been through the system’.
Playing games became an obsession.
Special festivals such as athletics sports days.
Role models from sixth form and society.

3 marks for 3 of
Impact upon participation and performance in schools today:
Quality and quantity of facilities affect levels of participation and performance today.
Public schools continue their very strong 19th century traditions and today are supported by the best facilities, house systems, professional coaching and sporting opportunities.
Hence they maintain high participation rates.
In state schools availability of funding and its impact affects quality of delivery and participation rates.
Participation believed to develop character, health, fitness and to encourage life long participation.
Head teacher support still vital in terms of kudos of subject in school.
Subject teachers who are prepared to help with extra-curricular activities affect regularity of practices and number of teams.

Question 14

How were games used by Thomas Arnold ( as a means of social control in Rugby School? [4 marks]

Answer 14

4 marks for 4 of:
Arnold believed in and encouraged ‘muscular Christianity’ or the belief in having a strong, robust, hearty soul with a strong, fit body.
His aim was to produce Christian gentleman (a combination of godliness and manliness).
Games provided the means of introducing a moral code of fair play.
Aimed to reduce bullying and lawlessness.
Athleticism combined physical effort and moral integrity or playing hard but with sportsmanship.
Arnold established a more trusting and sympathetic relationship with his sixth form.
Whilst his masters gradually adopted the status of sixth form with increased the powers of discipline, and in return required them to be positive role models.
Arnold introduced the ‘House system’ which became the focus of boys personal, social, recreational and sporting existence.
Games taught the boys how to work as a team and developed leadership characteristics.
The ‘House System’ ultimately set an environment of healthy games competitions and cohesive attitudes.

Question 15

What is meant by the term ‘melting pot’ in connection with 19th century public school athleticism? [6 marks]

Answer 15

2 marks for 2 of:
Widespread influence of public school athleticism on sport in society.
By virtue of the fact that pupils from many different public schools met at the Oxbridge universities.
And spread the message of public school activity.
Implication that a healthy mind in a healthy body was valuable.
Link made between physical endeavour and moral integrity/muscular Christianity.
The notion of fair play as being part of general life as well sport.
All these things were discussed and brought to fruition by the ex-pupils.

4 marks for 4 of:
The fact that its level of impact was considerable because: .
A social elite promoted this ethos as part of public school education.
This social elite carried the ethos to universities to create a melting pot or mixture of ideals.
Where there was shared camaraderie of young men with free social time.
Continued melting pot within and between universities.
Eventual influence of graduates in society, army/industry/schools/estates/clergy/colonial, as a melting pot.
And on the next generation of public schools/heads/assistant teachers/boys.
There was opportunity and provision in schools/competitions and administration.
And energy and expertise led to formation of clubs and governing bodies.

Question 16

Discuss the development of Saturday Half-Day and the emergence of working class sport. [4 marks.]

Answer 16

During the latter half of the industrial revolution the large factory owners realised that a shorter working week enabled workers to rest and be more productive..
Male workers realised that they could use this time to play sport (mostly soccer).
And teams were created to use this time.
Spectatorism (consisting of working men) was huge on Saturday afternoons.
Large factories also developed facilities (pitches and changing rooms) to be used on these occasions.

Question 17

Account for the delay in the opportunities for the working class to be able to play games such as lawn tennis. [4 marks]

Answer 17

4 marks for 4 of:
Didn’t have enough time as working class worked long hours.
Lack of disposable income, so couldn’t afford equipment and fees.
No garden (not just space).
Was not included in state school system until the 20th century.
Initially amateur development was meant for the middle and upper classes.
Excluded from clubs, local authorities, discrimination by middle class.
Lack of public provision via local authority.
Working class people did not have same middle class values, dress code and etiquette, there is still a hangover from this in the insistence that Wimbledon players always wear whites for playing.

Question 18

Modern sports are partly a result of changes that occurred in the 19th century. How did English public schools influence the technical development of games? [3 marks]

Answer 18

3 marks for 3 of:
Boys brought activities from villages and schools.
Played regularly in free time.
Devised initial rules which were individual schools versions.
This allowed inter House competitions.
Later adopted standardised rules.
This allowed inter-school competitions.
Structural changes such as boundaries, time limits, numbers on teams, strategies, roles, skills, techniques and kit.
Developed skills of leadership, captain roles and the games’ elite.

Question 19

Many National Governing Bodies of sport were set up in England during the period between the late 1800s and early 1900s. Why was it necessary to form these governing bodies and why did some of them prevent professional from competing in their sport? [6 marks]

Answer 19

3 marks for 3 of:
Why form NGBs?
Increase in number of fixtures or competitions.
More widespread playing of sport required nationally agreed rules, structure and regulation.
Different versions developed by different schools, for example mob football needed to be rationalised.
To set up competitions in leagues.
Deal with professionalism and commercialism.
Prevention of professionals

3 marks for 3 of:
Desire to maintain control of sport.
Preservation of amateur ideals.
Maintain exclusivity of sport, so that upper and middle classes did not mix with lower classes.
NGBs were amateur bodies and so amateur participants did not like losing to professionals.

Question 20

What was impact of the sporting press on sports’ participation and spectatorship in the 19th century? [4 marks]

Answer 20

4 marks for 4 of:
Technical innovations in printing and the telegraph system eased the way for a rapid expansion in newspaper production and aclassless readership.
During the 19th century there was a huge increase in sports journalism.
For example, the Sporting Times was devoted chiefly to sport, and in particular to horse racing.
At the same time, NGBs were founded, plus a sporting calendar.
Sports journalism was the first form of media coverage showcasing sports events, results and betting odds.
There was popular coverage for horse racing, pampering to upper and middle classes pursuits.
The sports column offered free publicity and results coverage for the developing NGBs, clubs and leagues.
Stimulating an increase on sports’ participation and spectatorship as more results and stories from lower class sports, such as football, were included within the sports column.

Question 21

Using sporting examples, explain the view that many teams and athletes are now influenced by corporations. [6 marks]

Answer 21

6 marks for 6 of:
Some teams are now owned by corporations, for example New York Red Bulls.
Some teams are now named as the corporation name itself, for example Ferrari.
Athletes are more accountable to the sponsor that the team in some cases.
Athletes are getting paid as much by their sponsors as by their professional sporting contracts in some cases.
For example Andy Murray has a four-year kit deal with Under Armour worth £15m in 2016.
TV corporations dictate which day and times sporting event takes place, for example Sky Monday to Friday night football.
TV corporations dictate when the commercial breaks take place.
Athletes’ kits are plastered with different sponsors’ names, for example Tour de France cyclists.
Corporations pay vast sums for naming rights for stadiums.

Question 22

Define the term disability.

Answer 22

Disability implies loss of ability in certain activities due to impairment.

Question 23

Describe what is meant by the ParaSport Movement.

Answer 23

The ParaSport movement is a non-profit charitable foundation supporting the development of organisations such as Paralympic sports throughout the World.

Question 24

Suggest reasons why rugby football is still only played by a small proportion of women.

Answer 24

Opportunity:
Most girls do not learn the game at school.
There are virtually no women-only rugby clubs.
Still limited number of men’s clubs running women’s teams.

Provision:
Facilities are not readily available for women.
There are very few female coaches.
The media fails to give the women’s game any coverage.
Sponsorship is limited.

Esteem:
It is traditionally a man’s game, organised by men.
Women generally regard themselves to be too physically weak to play the game.
They feel to play is to threaten their feminine image.
Rejected as unsuitable by many men.
Plus women only have associate membership in many male clubs and may feel marginalised.

Question 25

Identify the three main elements which limit female participation in sport.

Answer 25

Opportunity.
Provision.
Esteem.

Question 26

What does the term ‘social exclusion’ mean and what measures can be taken to address this issue. [3 marks]

Answer 26

Social exclusion is the exclusion from the prevailing social system and its rights and privileges.

Measures:
2 marks for 2 of:
Helping socially excluded people or communities to overcome inequalities.
By providing equality of opportunities.
Dealing with specific needs such as disability and access to facilities.
Raising awareness by challenging discrimination.
Encouraging and financially supporting people or communities to develop talents.
Improving intangible qualities such as self-worth, esteem.

Question 27

Identify three problems faced by the disabled in the sporting context and outline ways in which these problems have been
addressed. [6 marks]

Answer 27

Note this question has lots of possible alternative answers that may not be included in the answer below.

Conflict of attitude between ability and disability.
To some extend this conflict of attitude has been addressed by the media coverage of events such as the Invictus and Paralympic Games.
Low self-esteem can be changed into self-confidence by achieving goals.
Lack of provision is addressed by offering adapted facilities, equipment and rules, such as wheelchair tennis and basketball and financial support from sources such as lottery funding.
Lack of opportunity to participate has been addressed by government legislation and NGBs. For example, the English Federation of
Disability Sport works to increase opportunities for disabled people by supporting the sport sector.
And engaging with disability organisations that support participation at every level.

Question 28

What is the significance of the emergence of ‘Disability sport?’ [3 marks]

Answer 28

A disabled person is still half as likely to play sport as a non-disabled person.
‘Disability sport’ seeks to challenge and change this.
To enable disabled people to view taking part in sport as a practical lifestyle choice.

Question 29

What are the advantages and disadvantages to a performer with a disability taking part in an integrated sports programme? [6 marks]

Answer 29

Advantages:
An integrated sports programme offers the disabled performer access to facilities and high quality coaching from a wide choice of sports and activities within mainstream sport.
And the pathway for talented disabled performers (via the sports pyramid) to regional and national disabled squads and at the very top access to lottery funding/lifestyle support.
Development of social, personal, creative and learning skills that improve confidence and self-esteem in individual and team sports.
Provides a friendly, safe and fun environment.

Disadvantages:
Rules and equipment for activity may not be adapted to meet the needs of a disabled performer.
Coaches may lack specialist training to cope with the needs of the disabled performer.
Physical access to and within sports facilities may be difficult.
The disabled performer may not be accepted with the integrated sports programme.

Question 30

Disability Sport England has a responsibility to promote participation in sport for people with all forms of disability. Physical disability is one major category; state two other categories of disability. [2 marks]

Answer 30

Athletes with an intellectual learning disability.
Blind or visually impaired athletes.
Athletes with cerebral palsy.

Question 31

Trace the development of the ParaSport movement since the end of World War II. [4 marks]

Answer 31

4 marks for 4 of:
The ParaSport movement began in the 1940s and has become non-profit charitable foundation supporting the development of sporting events such as the modern Paralympic Games.
Evolving from the efforts to rehabilitate soldiers wounded during the World War II.
In hospitals such as Stoke Mandeville where rehabilitated soldiers with spinal injuries were encouraged to play wheelchair games.
Leading to the 1948 International Wheelchair Games.
At the Rome 1960 Paralympics, the competitive programme included eight ParaSport events considered beneficial and suitable for athletes with spinal cord injuries.
Since then, the ParaSport movement offers financial assistance in physical rehabilitation, social adaptation for people with physical, sensory and intellectual impairment.
Today it has international status (IPC) and coordinates disability sport around the World.

Question 32

How does the ParaSport movement enable disabled people to access the sport of their choice throughout their lives and progress to the level they choose? [3 marks]

Answer 32

3 marks for 3 of:
Note: This question is asking for the strategic aims of the ParaSport movement.
Ensures that strong and effective engagement processes and partnerships are in place with NGBs, CSPs, NDSOs.
And other partners that lead to improvement in the infrastructure of sport and the products and services available for disabled people.
Ensures the provision of pathways to participation for disabled people in sport and physical activity through a dedicated events programme.
For example, the English Federation of Disability Sport (EFDF) organise the Typhoo Regional disabled athletics championships.
Influences and supports the health and fitness industry to provide high quality inclusive services and provision.
Promotes and develops specific programmes and activities to support the growth in participation of young disabled people within sport and physical activity.
Generates significant additional income and funding opportunities to support the participation of disabled people in sport and physical activity.

Question 33

Discuss the terms opportunity, provision and esteem in the context of female discrimination in sport [5 marks]

Answer 33

5 marks for 5 of:
Opportunity to participate reflects the chances women have to participate in sport compared to men.
This is less a problem than in the past as opportunities are better today because gender discrimination is legally not acceptable.
Provision to allow opportunity has not totally caught up with the law.
There are still facilities, which are unsuitable for women in some sports, which have been historically used by men only, for example toilet and changing provision.
Certain private club traditions have retained limitations for women, e.g. there are very few independent women’s rugby clubs or equal rights in many private golf clubs.
Many clubs full with predominance of young men.
Some clubs remain exclusively male or female.
The main problem today lies in women’s low esteem regarding context of sport and participation in competitive sport.
Self-conscious in a male environment or as a beginner.
They presume that some sports are not suitable for them, for example boxing.
They feel that their female image is damaged by becoming muscular.
Certain females may be discriminated against on other grounds, such as age, race or disability.
Some lack the free-time to participate, with jobs and dependents.

Question 34

How might women experience discrimination in recreational and sporting activities? [3 marks]

Answer 34

3 marks for 3 of:
Less clubs, facilities, activities and competitions.
Less funding, sponsorship and financial reward.
Less access to positions of decision making, coaching, employment, clubs and activities (this is the glass ceiling).
Less media coverage and fewer role models to inspire them.
Stereotyping, social expectations, male members don’t want them there.
Verbal abuse and sexual harassment.

Question 35

Sport England has a role to play in identifying and targeting minority sub-cultures who for various reasons do not fully participate in Active Sport.
a) What are the main reasons why young women do not have as high a profile as their male counterparts in sport in the UK? [4 marks]

Answer 35

Four main reasons from the following:
Tradition - historical role of women having low sports profile.
Physical - presumption that women are physically inferior.
Social - present role of women as wives and mothers.
Economic - only male sportspeople are fully professionalised.
Media - biased media coverage towards male sport.
Administration - men dominate administration, coaching and officials in top level sport.
Esteem - large numbers of women do not feel equal in sport.

Question 36

Suggest reasons why women over 50 years of age participate in sport less than other minority sub-groups. [4 marks]

Answer 36

Tradition - older women may not be convinced about modern trends.
Influence - less organised than other groups.
Social - tend to have other preferences and time filled up.
Health - feel they are not fit enough or have limited access medical advice.
Esteem - sense of embarrassment.
Administration - not adequately catered for.
Preference and availability - perhaps older women would prefer dancing and this is not offered at the local leisure centre.

Question 37

Outline ways in which some of the problems associated with female participation have been addressed. [4 marks]

Answer 37

4 marks for 4 of:
Opportunity and provision is being provided by organisations such as the Women’s Sports Foundation, which is grant aided.
It influences national strategies in order to ensure sports programmes are equitable.
And aims to promote sport and motivate women into participating through best practice through projects such as ‘Women Get Set Go’.
Initiatives, such as the 2016 Sport England campaign ‘This Girl Can’, is designed to help women become more active.
Initiatives aim to break down the stereotypical attitudes to female participation.
And help to raise self-esteem.
Women get less media space or time than males in the UK. However, media campaigns have featured role models such as Kelly Holmes and Paula Radcliffe on TV features, newspaper articles and magazines.
Radcliffe’s Great Runners, a group of six women who have been trained and mentored by Paula, have taken part in national running events, have been featured on TV and social media and created debates about attitudes towards female sport.

Question 38

Explain the social and cultural factors that have led to an increase in the opportunities for women to participate in activities such as football. [4 marks]

Answer 38

4 marks for 4 of:
Equal opportunities, more sports generally being made available.
Women have fought for the right to participate in activities such as football due to the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975.
During World War II, women were valued because of their efforts in working in munitions factories.
Women were encouraged to join factory teams and so many large factories had female as well as male works football teams.
Media coverage increased.
Therefore increase in role models, more female coaches and PE teachers.
School PE curriculum and extracurricular programmes encouraged opportunities.
FA actively encouraged and accepted more female participants, opening up of traditional men only clubs to include female teams.
And providing more male coaches for female teams.
More participation = more money for the game.
Reduced perception of female stereotypes, women become more socially and physiologically acceptable.
For example, male dominated sports do not medically threaten female anatomy.
Women have more leisure time and more income.

Question 39

Explain the roles and impact of scouts, managers and media on the migration patterns of sporting labour. [6 marks]

Answer 39

International sport has a global market from which it can tap into and use.
Managers and scouts are experienced talent evaluators.
Managers are responsible for the selection of teams and work with their scouts who travel extensively for the purposes of watching athletes play their chosen sports and determining whether their set of skills and talents represent what is needed by the scout’s organisation.
Media and migration overlap in various ways. Sporting images, international events and social media are transmitted globally and so provide a source of information that can attract sporting talent as part of the network of global migration.

Question 40

All contemporary professional sports leagues include a wide diversity of nationalities and ethnicities within their playing and coaching staff. Discuss the historical and contemporary reasons why this is the case. What is the impact of the migration of sporting labour on domestic and national teams? [12 marks]

Answer 40

Historically migratory patterns of sporting behaviour have developed since the 1990’s.
Prior to this decade, professional athletes and support staff such as managers were ‘home grown’ and so in the case of UK football were predominantly white skinned and local.
In football the introduction of the player’s licence to contract players opened up the potential for international transfer deals. Initially recruits came from Europe – close to home and so the cultural and social transitions were not too drastic.
More recently, professional sports leagues now include a wide variety of nationalities and ethnicities from all over the World.
This has been driven mainly by commercialisation and globalisation, supported by global media and multi-national corporations that have radically changed the nature of modern sport into a multi-dollar global business and established industry.
For example, enormous sums are obtained through broadcasting rights and corporate sponsorship.
Today’s global migration of sporting labour has been mainly fuelled by this economic investment.
The economic impact on professional sports leagues is that huge transfer fees can attract elite players and managers from all over
the World.
For example, a Portuguese coach (current at 2016) is the manager of Manchester United and has players from the UK, Europe and South America in his premier squad.
Many corporations are owned by foreign businessmen, for example, Manchester United is owned by the very wealthy Glazer family, of US origin.
Global communication technology such as Skype and Facebook enable elite players to stay in touch with their friends and family back home.
Contemporary global airline transport provides efficient and comfortable travel all over the globe.
As a result players, managers and coaches are not put off by distances between job and their roots and families.
Talent pipelines, based on previous dealings and exchange of players and coaches, encourage further migration and diversity of nationalities and ethnicities.
For example, since the 1990s several Fijians and Kiwi rugby players have received lucrative contracts to play professional clubrugby in Japan.

Question 41

What is the impact of the migration of sporting labour on domestic and national teams?

Answer 41

The impact of talent pipelines can create a ‘player drain’ which depletes the country of its talent pool.
Migration of sporting labour can also have a negative impact on local talent. In the case of the FA premier football league, UK teams employ many non-UK players.
These situations can have a negative impact on local talent and the development of national sides as home grown players are denied regular opportunities to play at international level.

Question 42

Discuss the part played the British Empire in the spread modern sports all around the World. [6 marks]

Answer 42

Britain invented most modern sports, including Association football, rugby both Union and League, lawn tennis, badminton, table tennis, curling, cricket and squash.
These sports were formalised, codified and modernised in elite British Public Schools and the British universities in the 19th century.
They spread not only to the British Empire, but to everywhere Britons took themselves.
For example, the most popular game spread through the British Empire was cricket - it still remains the number one game in many
former British Empire, now the Commonwealth. Cricket reached Calcutta and Bombay by the 1700s, in Cape Town South Africa in the late 18th century and in Australia and New Zealand early in the 19th century.
Introduced by ex-public school boys who got jobs in former British Colonies.
Soon virtually every British outpost developed its own cricket establishment.
The spread of sports in the British Empire and the trade networks of that Empire consolidated the widespread impact of these new sports forms and practices.
Sport came to represent ideologies such as fair play, sportsmanship and muscular Christianity.

Question 43

What is meant by the term globalisation? [2 marks]

Answer 43

Globalisation refers to the spreading of the knowledge and customs across the World.

Question 44

How are national cultures and cultural identities being affected by processes of globalisation? [6 marks]

Answer 44

National cultures and cultural identities change due to the integration of local and global practices, reflecting and reinforcing local, national and international values. This concept is known as glocalisation.
For example, football culture can be observed as a national culture for fans, players and clubs.
National football is perceived as a source of national pride and represents the very heart or very spirit of community of which people are equal and passionate about the game.
Football songs are generated by fans at matches to encourage their team, to celebrate particular players.
Clubs have moved from local amateur organisations into big commercial corporations, for example Manchester United Football Club.
Players have also managed to increase their earnings massively during this change.
And bring their own cultural identity due to the global migration of players.
Positive and negative role models could come from anywhere in the World, bringing their own National identity into the melting pot.
Many football clubs produce their own football magazines and own TV channels that are intended for the International global market and therefore reflect both local and global considerations.

Question 45

Over the years the global sports sector and global media sector have developed a self-interest relationship. Discuss. [12 marks]

Answer 45

Self-interest is concerned only for getting what you want or need and not about what happens to other people.
Sporting bodies have to control their organisations by balancing the integrity of their sports and appealing to their spectators and at the same time bring in commercial revenue.
The popularity of major sporting events is supported by ongoing improvements in media technology which allows higher quality coverage than ever before.
The global sports sector and global media sector engage with fans to deliver a greater intensity of experience.
The media sector often dictates programme schedules and can influence the sports product itself. For example, the IAAF’s flagship grand prix series introduced changes to the system for horizontal jumps and throws at the start of the 2016 season, allowing only the top four competitors a full set of six throws or jumps after the first three rounds.
The logic behind this change is for the media to give greater exposure to field events by having a reduced programme.
Competing athletes, such as Greg Rutherford (Olympic long jump champion 2008) and fans are highly critical of this new system as it greatly restricts the competitor’s chance of winning.
Both the global sports and media sectors have an agreed self-interest on what they want and they are not concerned about the negative comments received from participating athletes and the spectators.
Global sports with a high fan base, such as football, tennis and snooker, rely on income generated from global media coverage.
During televised football games, the half-time adverts tend to have a heavy sports orientation.
Equally, many adverts are tennis based around the time of Wimbledon. These types of adverts not only get the general public interested in specific sports, but interest is also directed towards the advertised product to a huge fan/spectator base.
During high profile televised sport many betting adverts are shown.
One could argue that this type of advertising is not in the interests of the viewing public as it is encouraging gambling. Are gambling adverts good for the general public, particularly the young?
Sport coverage through the media has expanded alongside portrayal of general World events. This has stimulated mass participation levels as evident by the growth of events such as the London Marathon.
The professionalisation and high level of play of World sport is closely linked to media portrayal and the portrayal of role models enables (and motivates) the young performer to be upwardly mobile in social terms.
Players in major sports teams have become ‘super stars’ as a result of media coverage.
This has meant that players’ role model status has dramatically increased.
As a result, managers are responsible for ensuring their players behave in a sensible and appropriate way.
Super stars are increasing prone to overstepping the boundaries of what they should say on social media sites such as Twitter.
Sports celebrities need to act as good role models when it comes to media interviews, otherwise the media will develop stories beyond the facts, as was the case with Tiger Woods affair. This type of media involvement damages the image of the global sports sector.
It has even been known for players to be sold from premiership football clubs for inappropriate behaviour that has received adverse global publicity. This is where a self-interest relationship can fall apart.
A further challenge for the global sports sector is the difficulty in regulating and controlling the same content across a multitude of media platforms such as the internet, and the growing complexity of policing and selling sports rights in a digital world.
This is where there needs to be a close self-interest relationship that protects both the global sports sector and the global media sector.

Question 46

The opportunity for sporting and recreational activities has varied since the 19th Century. Why were many National Governing Bodies, such as the Football Association, established in the 19th century? [3 marks]

Answer 46

3 marks for 3 of:
Sports were becoming more popular with increased participation.
More and more clubs were being formed.
A nationally recognised set of rules was needed to make competition fair, known as codification.
Sports needed organising with administrative structures responsible for leagues and competitions.
Old boys wanting to continue participation and maintain the amateur tradition.
Working class were establishing their own control as they had more leisure time due to the industrial revolution.

Question 47

National Governing Bodies developed from a decentralised model. How has this model changed in the 21st century and what impact have these changes had on UK sport and society? [4 marks]

Answer 47

Many NGBs have moved away from a decentralised model to a centralised model.
The centralised model approach means that product marketing, development and promotions are controlled through one central location.
The impact is that the centralised model benefits from consistency and cost saving efficiencies.
And provides a home base where elite athletes can benefit from training together and have access to specialist services such as physiotherapy and sports psychology.
For example, the National Cycling Centre, based in Manchester, has achieved great global success and created sporting role models such as Bradley Wiggins and Victoria Pendleton who have had a direct impact on promoting sports participation and national pride.

Question 48

Describe three functions of National Governing Bodies (NGBs) [3 marks]

Answer 48

3 marks for 3 of:
NGBs role is to structure the sport i.e. rules, regulations and policy.
Oversee the sport. For example NGBs define the way that the sport operates through its affiliated clubs and societies and includes disciplinary action for rule infractions such as failing a drug test.
Organise its existing and future decisions and policies in conjunction with other organisations. For example, NGBs submitted whole sport plans to Sport England.
Encourages participation from grass root performers to elite performers.
Supports coaching, officiating and accredits sports leaders.

Question 49

What is the relationship between National Governing Bodies (NGBs) and International Governing Bodies (IGBs)? [4 marks]

Answer 49

NGBs are normally affiliated to IGBs and work closely together with IGBs to ensure that rules are observed by officials, clubs and performers during organised competitions.
Rules were originally determined by NGBs. Today rule changes are discussed between NGBs and IGBs, but formalised by IGBs.
For example, the International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF) changed the false start rule from a warning to the offending athlete to instant disqualification.
IGBs oversee and create a common set of rules that ensures a fair playing field throughout all NGBs throughout the World.
IGBs coordinate the efforts of individual NGBs in a given sport to ensure fair competitions.
IGBs oversee bids for global championships and then hand over championship responsibility to NGBs, as was the case in the 2012 London Olympic Games.

Question 50

Describe the role Sport England plays in the development and support of National Governing Bodies. [2 marks]

Answer 50

2 marks for 2 of:
Sport England devises strategies and agrees sporting policy to raise standards of performance, for example the ‘Whole Sport Plan’.
Sport England decides on funding to NGBs via National Lottery funding.
Sport England develops sport at grass roots level.
Sport England runs three ‘Centres of Excellence’ namely Bisham Abbey, Lilleshall and Plas y Brenin which provide prestigious training venues for NGBs lottery funded elite athletes.

Question 51

Over the years sports governing bodies have had to adapt too many external pressures in order to maintain their status with the sporting arena. How and why has this happened? [6 marks]

Answer 51

6 marks for 6 of:
Increased participation is often driven by Government policy and consumer demand which puts increased pressure on sport’s governing bodies.
For example, during the build up to the London Olympic Games in 2012, people were encouraged to take part in sport.
Many governing bodies were not equipped to manage the very positive responses and so some potential consumers were turned away due to lack of coaches and adequate facilities.
During this period governing bodies were recruiting, training and deploying coaches and sports leaders to organise and lead grassroots sporting activities and were investing in sport facilities.
Post London 2012, the Government launched a UK sporting legacy policy providing continued opportunities and provision to all.
How governing bodies deal with these pressures in part determines how much funding they receive.
Disability discrimination laws mean that it is unlawful for NGBs to treat disabled people less favourably for a reason related to their disability.
The profile of disability sport has been raised significantly over the past decade with UK NGBs championing its global status.
The pressure of participation trends can be monitored using surveys that supply statistical evidence of participation rates in relation to activity, gender, age and so on.
Such information is used by charities, Local Authorities and many other organisations.
Changes in participation trends could affect NGB funding for the development of grassroot participants through to elite squads.
Over the year governing bodies have had to adapt to commercial pressures in order to maintain their status.
This includes changes in rules such as the golden goal in football and the use of Hawkeye in tennis and cricket. This has happened to create more excitement for spectators.
Governing bodies have to deal with commercial breaks on Sports channels. These breaks interrupt play, but do provide a source of revenue that benefits the sport.

Question 52

Using an example from a national sport, identify a NGB sport’s initiative and discuss its impact on sport and society. [5 marks]

Answer 52

Note there are many possible initiatives to use.
initiative - Park run - a free, weekly, 5km timed runs that takes place every Saturday morning at 9 am throughout the UK.
Serving as a place for social gathering and the sharing of experiences.
Providing opportunity for mass participation – over 60,000 runners per week.
Improving the physical and mental health of participants.

Question 53

Identify two key functions of IGBs within today’s global sports arena. [2 marks]

Answer 53

2 marks for 2 of:
Organisation of championships.
Funding of prices.
Anti-doping issues.
Overseeing bids for new championships.
Organisation of worldwide structures.

Question 54

All National Governing Bodies (NGBs) and International Governing Bodies (IGBs) are increasingly aware and acknowledge the need for effective sport governance. Using an example from sport, what are the effects of corruption on sport and society? How can governing bodies provide good and effective governance in sport? [10 marks]

Answer 54

Note there are many possible examples.
Corruption in sport has many forms. The suspension of the Russian Athletics Federation (RAF) as an International Association ofAthletics Federations (IAAF) member came after the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) reported a deeply rooted culture of drug cheating within Russian athletics.
It revealed athletes attempts to evade drug testers, offering bribes and trying to submit clean samples not produced by the athlete him or herself, and many more irregularities.
As a result Russian athletes were expelled from the 2016 Rio Olympic Games and will not be eligible for international competition until Russia has complied with WADA code of conduct.
The effects of such corruption are social, economical and political.
Impact on clean athletes:
‘Clean’ Russian athletes have sacrificed years of their lives striving to compete at the Olympics.
‘Clean’ Russian athletes are being unfairly punished and could appeal against this ban at human rights courts.
Global spectators have been deprived the opportunity to watch ‘clean’ Russian athletes compete at the highest level.
Vladimir Putin (president) has said that the ban was ‘unjust and unfair’. So the Russian population will feel victimised.
Russia, like other countries, uses sport to create a ‘shop window effect’ and as a vehicle for nation building. Doping scandals tarnish a country’s image.
Corrupt sport can have a serious impact on the corporations and brands that are associated with it.
There are growing concerns that a corrupt sport’s tarnished image could be transferred to a partner or sponsor and that consumers could boycott a sponsor’s products.
How can governing bodies provide good and effective governance in sport?
Openness in decisions and policies is vital.
Governing bodies must have anti-corruption measures into their constitutions and codes of conduct, both internal and external.
Clear regulations and openness and make sure rules are actively enforced, such as a rigorous anti-doping policy.
Open, competitive bidding processes will help prevent corruption when host cities or venues are chosen for sporting events.
Governing bodies must work closely with both the media and commercial partners.
Sponsors can play their part by promoting ethics in sport as part of their corporate responsibility programmes.
The media also has the power to raise awareness about corruption in sport.
With these solutions governing bodies can be effective in providing good governance in sport.

Question 55

In 1896 the modern Olympic Games were established around the principle of the ‘amateur ideal’. Discuss whether this principle is still relevant to Olympic performers in the twenty first century. [15 marks]

Answer 55

De Coubertin had strong views on amateurism.
He modelled his views from the values of English public school system, such as fair play and sportsmanship.
The principle of the amateur ideal primarily means the love of sport and so competitors took part because of their love and enjoyment of their sport.
Elite class and social background of early Olympians meant that money was not an issue.
Elite athletes were able to pay their own way. No funding available from media or commercial sponsorship.
De Coubertin chose well-established sports to make up the Olympic programme, ignoring professional sports that were in the minority at the turn of the twentieth century.
There was an upper class bias throughout the early modern Olympic Games.
An increase in nations and athletes from different cultural backgrounds began to dilute this influence as the twentieth century developed.
This transition reflected the change in society and the growth of professional sports outside the Olympics.
1980s saw the rise in the commercial nature of the Games. Elite performers became stars and sponsors increasingly became interested in sport. For example, Carl Lewis who won nine Olympic gold medals between 1984 and 1988.
For example, state sponsored amateurs in USSR and East Germany and college amateurs with the American collegiate system.
Sponsors and television rights became the biggest influence on the Games.
In 1992, USA basketball dream team broke the taboo of professional athletes in the Games.
Higher levels of performance have meant a need for full-time athletes.
The Olympic Games of the twenty-first century now fully supports the idea of professionalism. The Games were now open but the majority of performers remain amateur or rely on state and or lottery funding.
Boundaries are constantly being stretched through sponsorship and funding.
But the concept of sportsmanship has been replaced by gamesmanship.
And so some athletes will do anything to win (win-at-all-costs), including tampering with equipment and taking performance-enhancing drugs.
However, most of today’s athletes will still have that love and desire to compete and demonstrate the honour that comes with competing for one’s country.
Thus retaining some aspects of the amateur ideals.

Question 56

Identify three goals of the Olympic movement that together define Olympism. [3 marks]

Answer 56

Based on the amateur philosophy of sport.
3 marks for 3 of:
Olympism exalts and combines a balance of amateur philosophy than brings together the whole body, will and mind.
To provide opportunities for personal excellence and enjoyment.
To develop an Olympic spirit of respect, fair play and sportsmanship.
To provide opportunity for all to take part without discrimination i.e. mass participation, accessible to all no matter race, colour or creed.
To promote International understanding and peace.
To enable cultural exchange/education.

Question 57

Suggest two ways in which the Olympic ideal is no longer apparent today. [2 marks]

Answer 57

2 marks from 2 of:
The decline in the amateur philosophy and the concept of fair play and participation over ‘winning-at-all-costs’.
Often fair play over-ridden by gamesmanship and cheating.
With many of today’s athletes having professional status.
The banning of nations/teams from the Games due to events such as State sponsored cheating/drug programmes and political human rights interference.

Question 58

In relation to global sporting events, what is meant by the phrase ‘the shop window effect’? [2 marks]

Answer 58

National and political groups use showcasing (shop window effect) to act as positive role models, promoting the country’s status for nation and morale building purposes.
Showcasing is way of promoting something, for example, the Olympic Games is used to promote the country that holds it.
National groups have used showcasing to promote their nation and what it has to offer. Politicians use sport to promote their country.

Question 59

Using examples from past major global games, discuss some of the positive and negative impacts that the shop window effect may have had on national and political groups. [6 marks]

Answer 59

Political groups use showcasing to act as positive role models, promoting the country’s status.
For example, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) wanted to display all their pageantry in the best light, with an amazing opening ceremony and their superb facilities and organisation of the Games. This they achieved.
But, two million people were evicted/displaced as a result of houses being demolished to make way for transport infrastructure and facilities. 40,000 protesting Chinese were imprisoned, many of these prisoners were supporters of the Tibetan freedom movement who demonstrated during the journey of the Olympic Torch around the World.
These negative events tarnished the PRC’s image in advance of the 2008 Olympic Games.
The IOC decided that in future the torch would only be carried within the realms of the host country.
In the Munich Olympic Games in 1972 the Black September Organisation (BSO), Palestinian terrorists used the shop window effect for their own political purpose when they kidnapped and murdered eleven Israeli athletes and officials.
This was the most publicised negative event of the Games and overshadowed the positive impact that West Germany Government intended to display.

Question 60

Describe the limitations which existed in the early Modern Olympic Games. [4 marks]

Answer 60

Early Olympians were white, middle or upper class and wealthy.
Restricted to nine events such as fencing and swimming.
Restricted to a limited number of participating Nations. For example, 13 nations in all, and nine events, such as fencing, athletics and swimming in 1986 in Athens.
Women were not allowed to compete in 1896.
In the 1900 Paris games there were 997 athletes of which 22 were women who took part in a very restricted programme of five events including tennis, sailing, croquet, equestrianism and golf.
Limited funds and no sponsors. Competitors paid for their travel and accommodation.

Question 61

Discuss the characteristics of World games, and explain how participation will affect the competitor. [8 marks]

Answer 61

2 marks for 2 of:
Characteristics of World games:
• Multi-sport.
• Single sport.
• Usually involves the best competitors, the elite.
• From around the World.
2 marks for:
Such games may be:
Multi-sport potentially involving all countries, for example, the Summer and Winter Olympic Games, and the Paralympic Games.
Single-sport potentially involving all countries, for example, the Football FIFA World Cup, the World Athletics Championships, the World Hockey Championships, and the World Badminton Championships.
4 marks for 4 of:
Competitors are:
Motivated by high competitive drive (i.e. the will to be the best - intrinsic motivation).
Able to meet personal goals - to be number one in the world!
Able to develop a career and to gain recognition or sponsors - extrinsic motivation (rewards).
Inspired by role models.
Encouraged by peer or family.
Opportunity, pride or satisfaction to represent his or her own country.
Opportunity to perform at the highest level.

Question 62

Team GB won 29 gold medals, 17 silver medals and 19 bronze medals during the London 1012 Olympic Games, finishing third in the medal table. Suggest the potential positive and negative impacts that participating in World Games can have on the elite athlete and society. [12 marks]

Answer 62

3 marks from 3 of:
Positive Impact on the athlete:
Athlete gains recognition from sponsors with associated extrinsic rewards such as a career in sport.
Athlete given the opportunity, pride or satisfaction to represent his or her country.
Athlete given the opportunity to perform at the highest level.
Athlete motivated by high competition drive – intrinsic motivation.
Improved support structures for the athlete, such as coaching, medical, psychological teams.
3 marks from 3 of:
Positive Impact on the society:
Increased number of spectators at sporting events.
Increased recruitment of coaches, officials and volunteers for the sport.
Increased commercial interest for hotels, shops, bars near to sports venues.
Increased public awareness of the athlete.
Increased participation in the sport at grass roots level i.e. mass participation.
Creation of positive role models as inspiration for young people to be inspired by.
Increased national pride (shop window effect) and integration of communities.
Increased regeneration of infrastructures such as transport links, housing, sports facilities.
3 marks from 3 of:
Negative Impact on the athlete:
High expectation of the athlete to do well in future events.
Increased media attention and intrusion into athlete’s private life.
Increased pressure on athlete to perform, for example training whilst injured or overtraining.
Athlete may become over-confident or complacent with success.
3 marks from 3 of:
Negative Impact on the society:
Inability to meet the increased demand for athlete, for example, lack of coaches, funding and budgets to maintain facilities.
Increased expectation from society for athlete to do well in future events.
Sponsors taking control over events, such as scheduling.

Question 63

The London 2012 Olympic Legacy is described as the longer-term benefits and effects of the planning, funding, building and staging of the Olympic and Paralympic Games in the summer of 2012. Evaluate the success of this legacy. [6 marks]

Answer 63

6 marks for 6 of:
Economic – supporting new jobs and skills, encouraging trade, inward investment and tourism, for example, apprenticeships in broadcasting companies.
Long-term benefits on London’s and Britain’s tourism industry.
Regeneration – of a whole London district with new homes, improved transportation and reuse of Olympic venues.
The re-opening of the Olympic Park as the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in July 2013.
Sport funding and investment – funding for elite sport until has continued, supported by the National lottery.
Continued high investment over the next five years in the Youth Sport Strategy, linking schools with sports clubs and encouraging sporting habits for life.
Development of more sports facilities and encouraging participation in schools sports and wider.
Education - Introduction of the School Games programme to boost schools sport and county sport festivals.
Introduction of Sport England initiatives, such as Activate.
Reports that school sports participation has not been boosted.
Social and volunteering – has continued to be successful as highlighted by the over-subscribed number of volunteers for events such as for the Commonwealth Games Glasgow 2014 and World Athletics Championships in 2017.
Learning – shared knowledge and lessons learned from the construction of the Olympic Park and preparing and staging the Games are used by organisers of forthcoming Global sporting events.

Question 64

Give reasons why the USSR and East Germany (GDR) dominated the medal league table in the 1976 Olympic Games. [3 marks]

Answer 64

3 marks for 3 of:
During the 1970’s East Germany conducted a decade of drug programmes to feed performance-enhancing drugs to their athletes, known officially as State Plan 14.25.
The drug regimens, given either with or without the knowledge of the athletes, resulted in outstanding victories in international competitions, including the 1976 Olympic Games.
During the 1970s the Soviet State Sport Committee ordered several research institutions to conduct studies on the effect of performance-enhancing supplements, including clandestine state-sponsored research to perfect blood doping and their possible use by Soviet athletes preparing for Olympic Games.
Judging by historical evidence and testing records, problems with doping have been the norm in the former Soviet Union for decades as evidenced by medal table results of 1976.
Also, these societies were centralised, and controlled by the state.
This meant that athletes were controlled and regimented by scientifically designed training programmes.
It is conceivable that the sport regimes would succeed without the drugs.
But this was never given a chance to develop.

Question 65

Account for the dramatic improvements in Team GB’s medal haul from 1976 to 2012. [3 marks]

Answer 65

One gold medal in 1976, the lowest place in the medal table since the early 1900s,
This disappointment accelerated a wholesale reform of the way sports were funded, organised and supported in the UK.
With the advent of lottery funding and Government support from 1996, financial investment was targeted at individual athletes and then at governing bodies and then the sports facilities needed to stage the 2012 London Olympic Games.
The net result was GB climbed the medal table from 36 in the Atlanta 1996 Games to third position in London 2012.

Question 66

Discuss the notion that ‘a homefield’ advantage plays a significant part in medal league tables. [3 marks]

Answer 66

3 marks for 3 of:
‘Homefield’ advantage describes the benefit that the home team is said to gain over the visiting team.
There are many causes that attribute to home advantage, such as crowd involvement, travel considerations, and environmental factors.
The home teams are familiar with the sporting venue.
They can lodge in their homes rather than in a hotel, and have less far to travel before the game.
They have the psychological support of the home fans - leading to greataer arousal and commitment of the players.
Disadvantaged away teams suffer from changing time zones, climates, diet or from the rigors of travel, not suffered by the home team.

Question 67

Why has the USA been consistently at or near the top of the medal league table? [3 marks]

Answer 67

3 marks from 3 of:
Huge population (320 million), hence a huge base to the sporting pysamid.
Ethnically diverse population, hence huge diverse talent pool such as African Americans.
Sports are particularly associated with education in the high schools (The Ivy Leagues) and universities both having highly organised
sports which include excellent facilities, professional coaches, competition structures, and sports scholarships available for the most talented.
Good climatic conditions for training and competitions as is the case in Florida and California.
Lombardian ethic – ‘winning isn’t the most important thing – it’s the only thing’.
The American Dream - the ideal by which equality of opportunity is available to any American, allowing the highest aspirations and goals to be achieved.

Question 68

Following the Beijing Olympic Games in 2008, account for China’s position on the 2012 London medal table league. [3 marks]

Answer 68

China has a massive advantage with her population size of 1.35 billion, and so China should be winning more medals, as she has an even bigger base to the sporting pyramid.
China decided to put more effort into developing her athletes starting 2001, creating state-run sports system under a highly centralised system, envied and feared abroad, which is finally bearing fruits.
So Chinese athletes live and train together, coaches are full time, facilities have improved (particularly as a result of the 2008 Beijing Olympics) so athletes don’t need to worry about their lives, food, clothing.
This lifestyle opportunity has increased participation levels.

Question 69

Following the London 2012 Olympic Games, discuss the impact of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) retesting programme on global sport. [3 marks]

Answer 69

3 marks from 3 of:
Blood and urine samples are stored in anti-doping laboratories so suspicious test results can be retested at a later date.
For example eight Russian athletes at London 2012 tested positive following retests in 2016.
Many of these athletes were medal winners and so should be stripped of their medals.
These athletes can appeal against bans through Human Rights Courts or the Court of Arbitration for Sport, but these disputes take a long time to resolve.
In the meantime clean athletes are waiting for medal upgrades and relevant prize money and have lost out on opportunities of gaining commercial sponsors, as well as not received the glory of a medal ceremony.
They may even struggle to motivate themselves to continue to training and compete within a cheating global arena.

Question 70

The global sports programme is increasing each year with new competitions, such as the multi-sports European Championships to be held in 2018. Discuss the impact of increased sporting opportunities for elite performers. [5 marks]

Answer 70

Exposure and opportunity for developing elite athletes to perform at a high level.
And so get accustomed to the global stage and media exposure.
Economic – possible enhancement of earning opportunities.
And gain recognition and attract sponsors.
Travel – the opportunity to travel all around the World and share different cultural experiences.
Could be too many competitions available and so potential for elite performers to over compete and risk injury and fatigue, when competitive programme is not carefully selected.
Resulting in the inability to reach peak optimal performance when it matters.

Question 71

Outline the issues faced by top female sportspeople as they strive to obtain sponsorship from a top sporting sponsor.

Answer 71

The social status of women in sport is less than that of men – which affects exposure in the media and therefore the possibilities for sponsorship are less than those for the men.
The fact that the media tend to focus on women’s appearance more than their sporting excellence tends to trivialise people’s perception of women as sportspeople, and hence reduce their chances of sponsorship.

Question 72

What is meant by inclusiveness in sport?

Answer 72

Letting people in and making them feel welcome.

Question 73

Explain how social class may affect a person’s choice of sport.

Answer 73

Social class is often a factor on a person’s choice of sport due to tradition, family background and wealth.
The remnants of class divides means that sports involving horses (figure 20.3) have an upper class association and are mainly out of reach of the working class due to cultural background and lack of finance to support participation.
Whereas, working class sports, such as track and field athletics, are accessible to all, due to the amateur nature of the sport and the relatively low costs required for participation.

Question 74

Sport for all is not yet a reality in the UK. How can a person’s opportunity to participate in sport be affected by socio-cultural factors? [5 marks]

Answer 74

5 marks for 5 of:
Economic status - cost of taking part or low income, since people with less money cannot afford to participate in sport.
Lack of or cost of transport/limited public services - particularly rural areas where public transport services have been cut back.
Ability, physique, stamina, fitness – in the UK obesity is one of the biggest health issues. Obese people may be self conscious.
Disability – not all leisure centres can accommodate disabled people. For example lack of ramps or disabled changing facilities.
Social pressures, stereotypes or social constraints - this could be ethnic background, race or religion. For example, muslim girls may not be able to take part in sports such as swimming or gymnastics.
Age – as the population gets older, it is harder to get to leisure facilities and so old people become isolated.
Ethnic background, race or religion - For example, Muslim girls may not be able to take part in sports such as swimming or gymnastics.
Gender – women find it more difficult to access sport because of lack of time, stereotyping,
Geographical factors from inner city to rural areas - generally there are more sporting opportunities in and close to large cities. In rural areas activities are often restricted to outdoor adventure sports such as walking, climbing and water sports.

Question 75

People from ethnic minorities, low socio-economic groups and women face more barriers in their struggle to reach elite levels in sport than those from dominant groups. Discuss. [15 marks]

Answer 75

People from ethnic minorities, low-economic groups and women in the population, as a whole, face discrimination and barriers to progress in all aspects of life, not just sport.
But the consequences for people with the talent to be elite sportspeople are even greater, since the demands of most sports are that they are expensive (cost more than general everyday living costs in terms of travel, food, facilities access – cost of entry to sports facilities – and equipment), demand use of time (every day time for training and time for travel to training), which would be on top of work time for most people.
This means that people with low socio-economic status tend to drop out of sport quite quickly after the age of 16 if no sponsorship or government support can be found.
In terms of equipment, the cost of this (particularly horses , bikes, and boats) would be an insurmountable obstacle to those people of the lowest socio-economic status. Such an obstacle would be insurmountable without grants and free provision of such equipment by National Governing Bodies or Local Authorities.
Most people operating at just below elite level would need to support themselves via employment of some sort, and again this would affect groups most with lower socio-economic status.
In general, people from ethnic minorities face the same socio-economic issues but more so, since such groups in general have to face the institutional racism embedded in the lives of the bulk of the population – particularly those over 50 years of age.
This attitude by people to the excellence of black people at sport can affect the attitude of sponsors to those black people. For example, Serena Williams has 22 tennis slam tournament wins compared to Maria Sharapova’s 5 wins, but Serena earned less than half of that earned by Maria in 2015.
Women, as 51% of the population, and whose age of possible elite sport participation coincides with the best years for childbirth, have also their stereotyping as homebuilders rather than strivers, seekers and careerists to contend with.
The opportunities for women are also less than for men (only 45% of participants in Beijing Olympics were women).
There is a glass ceiling for women – there are fewer women in the top positions of power (members of the IOC, presidents of governing bodies) in sport, and this must affect some women as they strive for excellence.
The social status of women in sport is less than that of men – which affects exposure in the media and therefore the possibilities for sponsorship are less than those for the men.
The fact that the media tend to focus on women’s appearance more than their sporting excellence tends to trivialise people’s perception of women as sportspeople, and hence reduce their chances of sponsorship.

Question 76

Discuss the impact of wearable technology on sports participation. [12 marks]

Answer 76

The fashion industry for sport is a multi-million pound industry worn by the sports superstars as adverts for the product on behalf of the manufacturer - for sponsorship.
The technology around this clothing is based on the production of a range of stretchable, breathable, wicking or waterproof fabrics suitable for rainproof, windproof, cold weather, or sun or hot temperatures.
Lycra sports clothing reduces air resistance, and special shark suits (which simulate shark skin) reduces drag for the swimmers. 130 World records were set in the 2008 and 2009 seasons, which led to FINA banning the use of these shark suits in official competition from 2010.
Hence provided that basic decency is maintained within the rules of a sport, fashion can dictate the shape, colour, and dimensions of kit worn.
The notion of showing off your purchase of the latest kit during your Park Run on Saturday mornings - this must stimulate participation.
The wearing of rubber belts or strapping to increase hydrostatic pressure within body part is an apparently compulsory element of gym use, with the one shoulder javelin suit and bench press or squatting suits in which force from the belt supports the tissue enclosed from the inside.
This is in addition to the latest trainers with foot support (including podiatratic sole inserts) enable the performer to achieve improved traction on playing surfaces.
Loughborough University have a Sports Technology Institute (LUSTI), examples of whose tasks include reassessing how footwear can be made to match the shape and mechanics of feet on an individual basis.
The foot is scanned to capture its shape, then footfall is analysed (using force plate technology).
This indicates exactly how the foot lands and moves, and leads to the construction of personalised footwear, whose aim is to make movement more efficient and improve performance.
A GPS transponder can now be worn during training and some game situations (giving speeds and distances run to the pitchside computer).
Garmin have produced such a wrist worn unit, which includes Heart Rate monitoring. This sort of feedback information helps a sport participant plan and monitor training which will increase the motive for participation.

Question 77

Why have opportunities to participate in recreational and sporting activities improved for people with disabilities in recent decades? [4 marks]

Answer 77

4 marks from 4 of:
Improved social awareness of potential of disabled/higher expectations.
Role models have inspired individuals.
More clubs available.
Adaptations have increased range of sports.
Better access to sporting facilities.
More coaching opportunities.
Campaigns e.g. Sport England, Disability Sport England,Government e.g.Disability Acts.
NGBs have to have equity plans as directed by government policies.
More media coverage of disability sport.

Question 78

What are the potential barriers to participation in active recreation for individuals from ethnic minority groups? [4 marks]

Answer 78

4 marks for 4 of:
Background can affect values. For example lower value given to sport and more emphasis on academic.subjects;
Can be affected by parental preferences.
Female participation lower in ethnic minority groups (patriarchal societies).
Discrimination may prevent access to clubs, hence racism.
Lack of information getting to these groups who do not already participate.
Preferred traditional cultural activities may not be offered.
Lack of media coverage and hence lack of role models.

Question 79

Today, some groups in society are less involved in sport and physical activity than others. Give three reasons for the lower participation rates among some ethnic minority groups. [3 marks]

Answer 79

3 marks from 3 of:
Racial discrimination.
Not encouraged and actively discouraged by parents and peers.
Low status priority given to sport.
Conflict with religious customs, religious observance and dress code.
Lack of role models and fewer coaches.

Question 80

Today, social and economic conditions can restrict opportunities to participate in sport. How and why is Sport England supporting participation projects in deprived areas? [6 marks]

Answer 80

3 marks for 3 of:
How?
Community action initiatives such as the ‘Active Communities Programme.
Funding such as the allocation of Lottery money to help provide, develop and improve facilities.
Paying salaries of development officers and coaches.
Training of sports leaders and coaches.
Setting up of clubs, NGB schemes, local initiatives.

3 marks for 3 of:
Why?
Because it can be much more difficult for organisations in these areas to raise funds for capital project than it is in relatively prosperous areas.
To help achieve regeneration.
To help achieve social inclusion.
Contribute to closing the gap in the provision of sports facilities between derived areas and other areas.
Help raise levels of participation.
Value to health to promote active lifestyles.
Educational outcomes and development of personal and social skills.
Community safety, cohesion and crime reduction.
Sport England making its contribution to the Government’s social agenda.
Discover and develop potential elite performers linked to specific sport schemes.

Question 81

How have NGBs and IGBs addressed discrimination issues? Support your answer with relevant examples. [8 marks]

Answer 81

Governing bodies are responsible for ensuring compliance by with equality laws.
Governing bodies aim to promote equality of opportunity and good relations between different races, and between men and women.
Here NGBs have increased sporting opportunities for minority groups. For example, in track and field athletics females have the same competitive programme as males.
Governing bodies are monitoring and measuring participation levels.
For example, The Sport England ‘Active People survey’ showed how participation levels varied from place to place, gender, ethnicity, social class, age and disability.
This statistical data can be used when developing action plans to address discrimination issues and lead to cohesive, integrated policies and procedures.
Governing bodies have used campaigns and the media to publicise discrimination issues.
For example, ‘Let’s Kick Racism Out of Football’ campaign was established within educational and community sectors to challenge discrimination, encourage inclusive practices and work for positive change.
Governing bodies have created initiatives to create positive images for discriminating minorities.
For example, Sport England’s 2016 ‘This Girl Can’ is a nationwide campaign to get women and girls moving, regardless of shape, size and ability.
NGS and IGBs coordinate their efforts with individual’s NGBs in a given sport.

Question 82

What social and economic barriers to sport and leisure participation do women still face today? [4 marks]

Answer 82

2 marks for 2 of:
Social barriers:
Sport not included under sex discrimination act.
Gender role/psycho-social needs/stereotyping.
Appropriate/inappropriate activity due to physiological stereotyping myths such as females should not do weight training.
Sport is seen as a male preserve and so women are kept out.
For example, some golf courses will not let females access to member’s lounge.
2 marks for 2 of:
Economic barriers:
Lower income.
Less time which could be due to family commitments and work.
Less resources, lower funding and fewer facilities.
Effects of lack of media coverage which does not portray female role models to the same extent as male role models.

Question 83

In the UK, a person’s participation in sport and physical activity may be influenced by a variety of social factors. How might a person’s ethnic background influence his or her participation in physical activity? [4 marks]

Answer 83

4 marks for four of:
Ethnic stereotyping may discourage away from some sports and encourage towards others’. (Suitable examples accepted)
Some ethnic groups are dominant in areas that lack sports facilities.
Some values and practices associated with sports may conflict with religious observances.
Racial discrimination, abuse, threats may deter participation.
Development of sporting ability is not seen as important as development of other aspects of life, such as education, career, work, family and religious duties.
Few role models in some sports and role models only exist in a limited number of sports.
Perception or belief of cultural aspects, traditions, peer pressure, low self esteem, inferiority, fear of being rejected and not accepted.
Ethnic groups set up and start their own different clubs and leagues.

Question 84

Justify why governments are keen to promote a culture of mass participation in sport and physical activity. [6 marks]

Answer 84

Physically healthier population means less money spent on the National Health Service (NHS).
Mentally healthy population means less cost to the NHS, and improvement in mental and social wellbeing.
Healthier population reduces sick benefit numbers.
Healthier population means a healthy workforce and so employers do not lose money from days off.
A larger base to the sporting pyramid, so more opportunities for talent identification.
People busier so less free time for anti-social behaviour.
Reduction in crime and increase in social control due to the cathartic nature of sport.
Breaking down of social and racial barriers means a more integrated society.
Consumer spending/VAT on leisure activities/equipment gives money back to the government.

Question 85

Identify and explain the factors that can influence an individual’s participation in sporting and recreational activities [4 marks]

Answer 85

4 marks from 4 of:
Resources - access to money, facilities, effective coaching, transport, clubs and disposable income.
Social status - middle classes more likely to participate. Lower classes less likely due to unemployment issues.
Peers, friends and family - positive or negative influences.
Cultural, religious, race issues, holy days, dress codes or equivalent.
Centrality – being in or away from sporting opportunities and stacking i.e.placing individuals in certain positions based on stereotypes.
Leisure time - amount of available to the individual will allow or restrict sporting opportunities.
Previous experience - past enjoyment or not of PE previous success in sport and access to Public school education. For example, most of the UK’s elite rowers are from Public schools.
Age – young and old are less likely to get involved in physical activity.
Gender - e.g. women may have less access to resources and men more likely to participate.
Disability - less access or increasing opportunities.
Discrimination - as unequal and unfair treatment of individuals on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, sex or age which results in denial of opportunities, selection or promotion.
Media coverage – society’s image is of a male dominated sport reinforced by the media coverage and male role models.

Question 86

National sports organisations, such as Sport England, have devised schemes to introduce children to sport and to develop their talents. Using examples, explain how such schemes help to achieve these aims. [5 marks]

Answer 86

Note there are many examples of schemes (initiatives) such as Sporting Champions, Sportivate, School Games, County Sports Partnerships, Towards and Active Nation, Active Lives, Tops programmes, Sporting start, Step into Sport and so on that can be used to answer this question.
5 marks for 5 of:
The Top Programme is aimed at Primary schools by providing equipment, training and support for teachers aimed at key stage 1 and 2 of the National currriculum.
Organising competitions, tournaments and events such as The School Games (Youth Sport Trust) offers secondary school pupils an opportunity to compete in a wide variety of sports from local heats to national finals.
Taster sessions and promotions such as Sportivate (Sport England initiative) offers free and subsidised coaching in a variety of sports aimed at 14-25 year olds.
There are many examples of adapted sports to suit children’s ability and physique. Any named scheme or adapted version of sport eg. Wheelchair rugby and tennis initiatives.
Devised award schemes such as Cricket’s ‘Chance to Shine’ award is aimed at increasing participation levels particularly in state schools, and Step into Sport (Sportsleaders UK) which provides opportunities for young people to obtain a qualification recognised by governing bodies.
Talent identification programmes. For example, the English Institute of Sport (EIS) and British Cycling, is the first in a series of Talent ID campaigns to be launched in 2016 searching for future Olympic and Paralympic champions. Each campaign will be looking for athletes with different attributes related to targeted groups of sports.

Question 87

Identify the theory behind the Sports Development Pyramid and explain the intentions behind each section. [6 marks]

Answer 87

A policy with the intention of having a place for all would-be participants recognising the different levels they might achieve.
This becomes a pyramid because fewer competitors can reach the highest level.
The bottom level is called the Foundation level.
It involves low ability performers learning basic skills or knowledge and understanding, and is often delivered as part of school PE programmes.
The 2nd level is called the Participation level.
It involves the individual participating in an increased number of recreational or leisure options, and awareness of health-related fitness issues often promoted in extra-curricular sport.
The 3rd level is for high performance athletes and is called the Performance level.
This involves specialist coaching or development at club or regional or national levels.
The top of the pyramid, Elite (or excellence) level, involves performers reaching national standards, often with public recognition.

Question 88

Outline the roles of various agencies or bodies in the UK which have an effect on participation at the foundation level in sport. [6 marks]

Answer 88

Note there are many possible agencies/bodies in the UK which have an effect on participation at the foundation level in sport.
6 marks for 6 of:
Public sector agencies provide funded facilities such as sports/leisure centres, swimming pools and outdoor pitches which are paid for by national and local government using tax payers’ money and National Lottery funding.
Some schools share facilities with the local authority for lessons and extra-curricular activities and thus provide additional to support to increase participation at the foundation level in sport.
Local authorities encourage participation in sport by employing sport development teams including School Sports Coordinators who arrange events, assist with coaching and develop links with clubs in the area of schools.
Private sector agencies, such as the David Lloyd leisure centres, are funded facilities set up by private companies that try to make a profit. These agencies offer sports/fitness clubs, golf and tennis clubs.
The Government is responsible for several initiatives in an attempt to increase participation at the foundation level in sport:
A new Youth Sports strategy
The present government (2016) and former coalition government (2010 to 2015) moved the organisation and structure involved in Sport Colleges and the Youth Sport Trust to identify the role of School Games Organiser (SGO) government funded 3 days per week posts, to organise intra and extra school competitions.
Youth Sport Trust Strategic Plan.
The plan outlines the core purpose, values and the impact it aims to achieve over the next 5 years.
Every child needs the best possible sporting start in life.
All young people deserve a sporting chance.
All young people should be supported to achieve their sporting best in school and in life.
Change4Life Sports Clubs for less active youngsters helping them adopt healthly lifestyles, in an attempt to increase participation of the Nation’s youth after the age of 16 – when at present two thirds of girls and one third of boys cease to undertake any meaningful sporting activity
Sportivate
• Sportivate is an inclusive Sport England, London2012 and Lottery funded initiative programme aimed at 11-25 year-olds, offering
access to free and subsidised coaching in a variety of sports and activities in order to give young people a taste of just how fun,
enjoyable and social sport can be.
• TOP programme - TOP play and TOP sport – A Youth Sport Trust initiative
• The TOP Programme (National Lottery funded), is a national initiative developed and coordinated by the Youth Sports Trust aimed
at Primary aged children.
• It is a joint curriculum (school) and community programme that is designed to encourage sports participation and develop skills
associated with this.
• TOP Play is designed to support 4 to 9 year olds as they develop core skills.
• TOP Sport provides 7 to 12 year olds with opportunities to develop skills in a range of specific sports.
• NGBs have created their own schemes to increase participation at the foundation level in sport.
• For example, a ‘Chance to Shine’ aims to spread the power of cricket in schools and communities, inspiring one million more young
people by 2020.
• Park run, organised by British athletics, offers a free, weekly, 5km timed runs throughout the UK and attracts over 60,000 runners
of all ages each Saturday at 9.00 am throughout the UK.
• Sponsors include commercial agencies that provide a great opportunity to get more young people playing competitive sports, as
proven by the success of the Sainsbury School Games structured in to four unique levels of activity: intra-school, inter-school,
festivals, and the School Games themselves.
• Media coverage of sport is widespread and stimulates interest in sports participation. For example, the media coverage of the 2012
London Olympics help to produce a surge in young people to get involved in a chosen sport.

Question 89

Identify the health risks for someone not participating in any sport whatsoever. From a sport of your choice, explain how the London Olympics 2012 may have influenced participation in sport, and hence the health of the Nation. [12 marks]

Answer 89

6 marks for 6 of:
Health risks of zero exercise:
•Obesity – fat people have reduced fitness, get out of breath easily and are at greater risk of heart diseases.
Stress – people feel more stressed if they don’t take exercise.
CHD – the risk of coronary heart disease – heart attack is much higher.
Diabetes – is a risk for non exercisers (who are probably obese).
High blood pressure – this condition gradually evolves with lack of exercise – leading to strokes.
High cholesterol – this factor is increased with lack of exercise, leading to strokes and heart attacks.
Choice of sport - Athletics:
6 marks for 6 of:
Team GB Track and field athletics produced very good results in London 2012, with 4 gold medals including a double gold for Mo Farah over the 5000 and 10000 metres, Jess Ennis in heptathlon and Greg Rutherford in the long jump, plus many finalists.
These role models inspired a viewing sporting nation.
Individuals were inspired.
For example, as a box carrier in the athletics stadium at London 2012, Dinar Asher-Smith witnessed and was inspired by these gold medallist performances, and in 2015 Dina broke UK records for the 100 and 200 metres, and in July 2016 became European 200 metres champion.
Many people were inspired to participate after viewing the Olympics as evident by the growing weekly success of the 5 km ‘Park Runs’ staged throughout the UK. As a result there has been a general increase in regular athletics participation since 2012.
Volunteers have been inspired. There were 70,000 Olympic volunteers during the games and oversubscription and enthusiasm continued into Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games. The volunteer sector continues to thrive despite volunteers having to pay their own expenses.
The legacy of the London 2012 Olympic Games is continuing elite success as athletes prepare for future global events.
Development of more sports facilities and encouraging participation in schools sports has been part of the 2012 legacy. For example, the School Games aims to boost schools sport from grass roots to elite participation level.
Despite all these positive influences there has been little or no impact on the health risks listed above. For example, more children in the UK are being diagnosed with type 2 diabetes linked to obesity, with children from minority ethnic groups at higher risk than white children.