Topic 3 - Skill Acquisition

Question 1

If you were watching a number of performers in sport, what characteristics would you expect the movements of a skilled performer to have? [4 marks]

Answer 1

Answer:
• Movement seems effortless.
• There are many correct movements consistently performed.
• The movement follows a technical model.
• The movement is aesthetically pleasing.
• The movement is controlled and well co-ordinated.

Question 2

By using examples from sport, explain what is meant by fundamental psychomotor skills and why they are so important. [4 marks]

Answer 2

Answer:
• Jumping, catching, throwing etc.
• Basis for the development of other skills.
• Learned through early experiences usually via play.
• Important because can draw on them for lifetime sports or healthy lifestyles.
• Helps personal development and self-esteem.

Question 3

Why is the shot put often regarded as a closed skill? [2 marks]

Answer 3

Answer:
• Tends to be an habitual response.
• Little reference to the environment.
• There is a definite beginning and end.
• More self-paced than externally-paced.

Question 4

Using passing skills in a team game, explain what is meant by an open skill. [4 marks]

Answer 4

Answer:
• When passing a soccer ball you need to take into account any challenge from your opponents.
• You need to refer to where your team mate is when passing a netball.
• You need to process a great deal of information regarding speed of passing the ball in hockey and the direction of the pass.
• When passing the ball in rugby the speed at which you pass is often dictated by how quickly you are being closed-down.

Question 5

Give one example from sport of each of the following and state why you have chosen your example: continuous skills, serial skills, discrete skills. [3 marks]

Answer 5

Answer:
• Continuous skill: cycling - because the subroutines of the pedaling action are not easily separated.
• Serial skill: triple jump - because there are a number of discrete elements linked together to make up the whole skill.
• Discrete skill: forward roll - because there is a definite beginning and a definite end to the skill.

Question 6

Explain how your profile for the table tennis serve might assist a coach in planning practices for players learning this skill. [5 marks]

Answer 6

Answer:
• The coach should look at the position of the skill in each continuum to see if it will tell him or her something about how to organise the practices.
Continuity:
• Because the skill is discrete, it can be practised in isolation from other aspects of the game.
• It should be practised sufficiently to enable accuracy and consistency to develop.
Pacing:
• Because the skill is internally paced, the coach should encourage beginners to take their own time in executing the skill.
• And to adopt a set routine or mental set for the technique.
Environmental influence:
• Although the serve is relatively ‘closed’, it can be affected by temperature of the playing hall, and pressure of the of the event.
• Which means that the player should be exposed to practice in this variety of environmental conditions in order to be best prepared for him or her in the competitive situation.

Question 7

Explain four different types of transfer of learning. [4 marks]

Answer 7

Any four from:
• Positive transfer is one skill helping the learning or performance of another.
• Negative transfer is one skill hindering the learning or performance of another skill.
• Bi-Iateral transfer is the transfer of learning or performance from limb to limb.
• Retroactive transfer is the influence of a skill being learned on a previously learned skill.
• Proactive transfer is the influence of a skill being learned on future skills, a skill learned in the past has an influence on a present skill.

Question 8

Using a practical example, explain what is meant by the term ‘transfer’ in skill learning. How can transfer be detrimental to performance? Give a practical example. [5 marks]

Answer 8

Answer:
Transfer in skill learning:
• The influence of the learning or performance of one skill on the learning or performance of another skill.
• If you perform one skill and then perform another, the second may well be affected by the first.
• For example, you perform a push pass in hockey and then you perform a flick, the actions of the first skill may help that of the second (positive transfer).

Detrimental to performance:
• The performance of one skill may well hinder the performance of another.
• Because there may well be inappropriate movements or information processing which could confuse the performer.
• For example, a badminton player may play tennis immediately after playing badminton and the forehand in tennis may be far too ‘wristy’ because of the confusion in the response.

Question 9

How can a teacher or a coach ensure that as much positive transfer takes place as possible in a training session? [5 marks]

Answer 9

Answer:
5 marks for 5 of:
• The coach uses as many different practices as possible in training – drills are varied.
• Emphasise the transferable elements of the skills.
• Tell performers about transfer to heighten awareness.
• To ensure the building of schema.
• Make sure training is relevant to the ‘real’ game.
• Environmental conditions need to be similar.
• Tactics, strategies and information processing elements need to be similar.
• Avoid confusing practices to avoid negative transfer.
• Ensure that skills are thoroughly learned before moving on to other skills.
• Give distributed practice sessions in which there are rest intervals for mental assimilation.
• Positive previous experiences or values assist transfer.

Question 10

Identify the characteristics of a performer in the autonomous stage of skill development. [4 marks]

Answer 10

Answer:
• Almost automatic in movements.
• Seems confident or has predetermined goals.
• More likely to complete complex movements.
• Is successful consistently.
• Less likely to lose concentration and so is focused.
• Advanced performers will only stay in this phase if they keep referring back to the associative phase or keep practising.

Question 11

How might the type of mental practice change in the last phase of learning? [4 marks]

Answer 11

Answer:
• Concentrating on only very few stimuli or very selective in attention.
• Less about skill performance, more on keeping calm and controlling arousal.
• Utilising imagery of the sequences as part of the warm-up.
• Visualising success more than other phases.
• Thinking more about tactics or strategies.

Question 12

According to Fitts and Posner, learning passes through three stages. Use an example from one of your practical activities to describe the key characteristics of each of these stages. [5 marks]

Answer 12

Answer:
Select your practical activity.

Stage 1: cognitive
• Learner is using trial and error learning.
• Getting an idea of the skill.
• Many mistakes made.
• Movement is inconsistent.
• Movement lacks fluency
• Performer concentrates on every aspect of the movement.

Stage 2: associative
• Movement is smoother.
• Subroutines linked.
• Performer can use kinaesthetic feedback.
• Motor programmes are formed.
• Practice required and awareness of mistakes.

Stage 3: autonomous
• Movements are automatic.
• No conscious thought or attention required.
• Tactics and strategies can be focused on.
• Reaction time is reduced.
• Detailed external feedback can be used.
• Errors can be detected and corrected without help.
• Must practise to remain in this stage.
• Fluent, flowing.

Question 13

Explain how you would use operant conditioning to teach a sports skill of your choice. [5 marks]

Answer 13

Answer:
• Operant conditioning is shaping behaviour by reinforcement.
• The sportsperson has a go at the sport, and the correct effort is reinforced, and the incorrect effort is negatively reinforced.
• This is done by the teacher praising success, and hence giving the sportsperson a feeling of well-being when success is achieved.
• When an incorrect effort is achieved, praise is withdrawn or not given.
• So the sportsperson learns to associate (connect) praise (and well-being – the stimulus) with a correct effort (the response).
• This is called the stimulus-response bond.
• The sportsperson is learning by trial and error.
• Eventually, incorrect responses will disappear, because the person wants to feel good.
• This process can be extended by showing the sportsperson how to perform the activity, this is called shaping, then the correct shape is reinforced (rather than just the shuttle going over the net as in badminton).
• For example, to teach a high long serve in badminton.
• Give demonstration (shaping).
• Get opponent to stand in service box opposite with racket held high (shaping).
• Give targets to aim for (shaping) – aim to get the shuttle over the opponent’s head.
• Give knowledge of results (reinforcement) – did the shuttle pass over the opponent’s head and land inside the baseline?
• Give feedback about performance (reinforcement) – was the shot performed with the correct wrist movement?
• Give praise (reinforcement).

Question 14

Describe what is meant by reinforcement and give examples of different types. [4 marks]

Answer 14

Answer:
• Reinforcement is the manipulation of a stimulus to ensure that a response recurs.
• For example, positive reinforcement - giving praise when a swimmer wins a race.
• For example, negative reinforcement - taking away the praise if the swimmer subsequently loses.
• For example, punishment - telling the swimmer off for not trying very hard if he or she loses the race.

Question 15

Using examples from sport explain what is meant by the S-R bond. [4 marks]

Answer 15

Answer:
• A certain response is connected to a certain stimulus. For example, a forehand is hit by a right-handed player because the ball appears on the right hand side of the player’s body.
• The stimulus acts as a cue to be associated with a response. For example, in volleyball a player will jump to block a ball being smashed across the net by the opposition.
• The response is almost automatic because the bond is so great between stimulus and response.
• For example, a ‘reflex’ save by a goalkeeper to a shot on goal.
• Or a sprinter driving out of the blocks when the gun goes.
• The bond (link) is strengthened by reinforcing correct responses – giving praise for correct responses, and withdrawing praise or giving punishment for incorrect responses.

Question 16

Explain how a coach in a sport could ensure that a correct response follows a particular stimulus. [5 marks]

Answer 16

Answer:
• Give praise or positive reinforcement.
• Give feedback or give direct knowledge about what to do.
• Give satisfaction if movement is correct (Thorndike’s Law of Effect).
• Give negative reinforcement (withdraw praise) if movement is incorrect.
• Give punishment if movement is incorrect.
• Repeat the correct movement to establish a motor programme.

Question 17

Stimulus-response bonding has been used to explain how a physical skill can be learned. What is a stimulus-response bond and how can a Physical Education teacher ensure that it is strengthened when teaching swimming or athletics? [6 marks]

Answer 17

Answer:
Definition of S-R bond:
• Performer learns to link a particular response to a particular stimulus.
• For example, the starter’s gun in swimming (stimulus) triggers the swimmer’s movement (response) from the blocks or poolside.
Strengthening the S-R bond:
• Must use swimming or athletics example.
• Use reinforcement, praise or punishment to ensure that the person is made to feel good about the correct response, and bad about an incorrect response.
Thorndike’s Law of Readiness:
• A performer must be mentally and physically able to do the task.
• For example, a learner swimmer must want to and be physically capable of trying butterfly if she is to master the stroke.
• For example, an 11 year old boy will be physically incapable of performing a slam dunk in basketball.
Thorndike’s Law of Exercise:
• Practice of the task will strengthen the S-R connections.
• For example, the athlete has frequent attempts at the sprint start.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect:
• If the response is followed by satisfaction or positive feedback (a ‘satisfier’), the bond is strengthened.
• If the response is followed by an intense emotional feeling (of well-being) the bond is strengthened.
• For example, the swimmer who feels pride after doing 25m for the first time.
• If the response is followed by an ‘annoyer’ or negative feedback, the bond is weakened.
• For example, a young high jumper who repeatedly knocks the bar off because the bar is too high.
• Positive reinforcement, Reward or Praise:
• Operant conditioning or shaping increases the chance of the behaviour occurring again.
• For example, the swimmer gains a badge for completing 25m.
• Negative reinforcement:
• The behaviour is likely to be repeated when a stimulus is withdrawn.
• For example, no-one makes fun of the pupil who usually comes last when he or she achieves a better placing.
• Punishment:
• The stimulus given prevents a particular response occurring.
• For example, a pupil is made to perform an extra lap of the track for unsafe behaviour in the javelin lesson.

Question 18

A coach reinforces good performances in training with praise. Why does this reinforcement work rather than punishing poor performance? Explain what is meant by reinforcement and punishment in this case. [5 marks]

Answer 18

Answer:
• Reinforcement works because the praise (giving a pleasant experience) to the performer will enhance and give motivation to the performer to repeat the good performance.
• The S-R bond is enhanced.
• Punishment of a poor performance (giving an unpleasant experience) has the chance that the person could be demotivated by the activity.
• And good performances never attained.
What is meant by reinforcement?
• Reinforcement is the giving of pleasant experiences for good performances to attempt to enhance the S-R bond and stimulate the correct response.
What is meant by punishment?
• Punishment is the giving of unpleasant experiences for poor responses or performances.
• This is an attempt to make a performer reject an undesirable response.
• And hence try harder to attain a correct response.

Question 19

Explain the difference between massed and distributed practice. [2 marks]

Answer 19

Answer:
• Massed - no rest intervals hence practice conditions of long duration.
• Distributed - rest intervals at regular periods of time during a session.

Question 20

Justify the choice of practice conditions for a training session of a sport of your choice. [6 marks]

Answer 20

Massed:
• To ensure motor programmes are learned (overlearning).
• To encourage an habitual response.
• To cut down on response or reaction time.
• Good for learning discrete skills.
• Good for skills performed over a short duration, for example, basketball shots.
• But can lead to fatigue, boredom or demotivation.
Distributed:
• To give physical rest or recuperation.
• To give mental rest or gather thoughts.
• To relieve stress.
• Provides safety for dangerous activities.

Question 21

Name two characteristics of the task, and two attributes of the learner which might lead you to decide which method (massed or distributed) of practice to use. [4 marks]

Answer 21

Answer:
Two characteristics of the task from the following:
• Whether the skill was complex and lengthy or short and discrete.
• Whether the task required great fitness levels.
• Whether the task was dangerous or not.

Two attributes from the learner:
• The motivation levels of the learner.
• The personality of the learner (whether or not he or she would be prepared to persist in the learning task).

Make sure you use the above answer in relation to a sport or game of your choice.

Question 22

Generally a skill should be taught as a whole as far as possible. Give reasons for this. Some skills need to be split up into parts to be taught effectively. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this type of skill presentation. [12 marks]

Answer 22

Answer:
Teaching skill as a whole:
• The performer can appreciate skill in its entirety.
• Has overall kinaesthetic sense of the skill.
• The flow of the skill is not interfered with.
• Much more efficient in skill learning and is therefore quicker to learn.
• Can help understanding and hence the cognitive development of the performer.
Splitting into parts:

Advantages:
• Useful if skill is dangerous and will lower fear level.
• Good for complex or difficult skills.
• Good for serial skills.
• Gives success at each stage and less likely to fail overall skill.
• Helps confidence and motivation.

Disadvantages:
• Transfer of movements from the part skill to the whole may not work.
• Some skills cannot be split up into subroutines very easily.
• Loses the overall kinaesthetic sense.
• Loses the flow of the skill.
• Takes up too much time.

Question 23

Using Thorndike’s laws, discuss how producing a satisfying effect in a particular situation becomes more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation. [15 marks]

Answer 23

Answer:
• Reinforcement is the process of increasing behaviour by giving satisfaction to the learner.
• That can be positive such as praise and rewards to achieve the desired result.
• And negative by removing an unpleasant experience in order to increase the likelihood of the desired response being repeated.
• Thorndike’s three laws are concerned with strengthening the S-R bond, and hence the concept of reinforcement that is particularly importance to skill development.
• The law of readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness.
• Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn.
• And do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.
• This law says that learning can only occur when the nervous system (and muscular system) is sufficiently mature to allow the appropriate S-R bond to happen.
• For example, the more a thrower is physically and mentally prepared to perform a throw then it is more likely to be performed well.
• Individuals should learn simple basic skills (and become basically fit) before attempting to learn more complex skills.
• The law of readiness includes mental readiness.
• Participants learn best when they really want to acquire the skill.
• Have a clear understanding of the requirements of the task.
• Know and accept why they are practising the task.
• The law of exercise explains that repetition strengthens the S-R bond.
• It forms the basis of drill and practice.
• Learning occurs when a particular response has an effect on the person i.e. when the response is reinforced.
• For example, the more a discus thrower practises throwing the more likely it is that this correct throwing technique will be repeated in the competitive situation.
• So practice is very important.
• The law of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the learner.
• It has a direct relationship to motivation.
• The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by pleasant and satisfying feeling.
• And that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
• It uses reinforcement (by praise, reward or observed success) to strengthen the S-R bond.
• Satisfying reinforcers (ones which make the learner feel good) increase the likelihood of a response being repeated.
• Thus, to enable early success it is important for a coach to use positive feedback to reinforce correct attempts.
• For example, if the thrower feels that the movement is correct then he or she is more likely to repeat the movement.
• Failure in a task can also act as negative reinforcement because it producing the opposite effect of satisfaction annoyance or discomfort.
• A trial and error process can produce this effect, since success reinforces a response, whereas failure forces the performer to try new methods to achieve success.

Question 24

Why is visual guidance particularly suitable for learning a new skill? [2 marks]

Answer 24

Answer:
• Provides learner with a mental image of the skill.
• In terms of sequencing or timing of the movement.
• Draws attention to key points such as cues.

Question 25

Why can verbal guidance be of limited use on its own? [2 marks]

Answer 25

2 marks for 2 of:
• Can overload beginners with information.
• Learner may lose concentration.
• Language may be too complex for beginners.
• Not as useful when used by itself.
• Therefore should be combined with other forms of guidance.

Question 26

What are the benefits of verbal guidance? [3 marks]

Answer 26

Answer:
3 marks for 3 of:
• Tactics can be explained.
• Gives technical information, key points and highlights cues.
• When used with visual can form mental image.
• More effective for the autonomous stage of learning.

Question 27

When are manual and mechanical guidance best used? [4 marks]

Answer 27

Answer:
4 marks for 4 of:
• Manual guidance uses physical support and is best used with competent performers during the autonomous stage of learning.
• As it gives kinaesthetic awareness and confidence to the learner.
• Mechanical guidance involves the use of equipment to help support the leaner and shape the skill.
• And is best used during the cognitive stage of learning.
• As it helps the performer learn a movement whilst building confidence and getting a sense of how it should feel.

Question 28

Discuss how technology can benefit guidance methods [6 marks]

Answer 28

Answer:
Note there are many possible alternative answers to this question.
6 marks for 6 of:
• The most appropriate technologies benefit both visual and verbal guidance.
• Verbal guidance is more effective during the autonomous stage of learning.
• Digital players, such as MP3 players, can record audio files that performers can listen to and use during visualisation training to guide them through technical information required for their performance.
• Thus reinforcing technique by creating a mental picture for the learner.
• Other digital players, such as iPOds, mobile phone apps, can produce both video displays and audio commentaries of performances.
• Video analysis has the advantage of slow motion, split screens and freeze frame features to enhance demonstration analysis.
• Such technologies can be used as demonstrations for learners, particularly during the cognitive phase of learning.
• Other examples of visual guidance include diagrams, pictures and models often presented to the learners in digital format.

Question 29

Other than visual guidance, what other main methods of guidance are there? Give a practical example for each. [6 marks]

Answer 29

Answer:
• Verbal - for example, instructions to an athlete before a race.
• Manual - for example, supporting a gymnast doing a handspring.
• Mechanical - for example, a child using stabilisers on a bicycle.

Question 30

How would you optimise the use of visual guidance in teaching motor skills? What are the drawbacks of this method? [4 marks]

Answer 30

Answer:
Visual guidance:
2 marks for 2 of:
• The coach or teacher would use an accurate demonstration.
• Cueing the performer to important elements.
• Use immediately before performance.
• If visual guidance is used as feedback, it must be used immediately after the performance.
• Make sure it is supplemented with verbal guidance.
• If models or videos are used, ensure relevance to the learner.
• Make sure the model presented is attainable.
Drawbacks:
2 marks for 2 of:
• Confusion if too much visual guidance is shown at a time.
• Model or demonstration may be inaccurate.
• If videos are used, these may be boring or demotivating.
• Model seen may be perceived as unattainable.

Question 31

Identify two different mechanical items which might assist movement skill learning. [2 marks]

Answer 31

Answer:
Any two examples of mechanical aids to learning:
• Support belt in trampolining.
• Stabilisers on bicycle.
• Armbands in swimming.

Question 32

Give reasons for the use of these mechanical items to help a learner come to grips with a motor skill. [4 marks]

Answer 32

Answer:
Give reasons:
• Gives confidence to learner.
• Provides safety.
• Enables success.
• Builds up subroutines and enables part-learning.
• Gives an idea of the skill with similar kinaesthesis.

Question 33

Define the term feedback, and briefly describe three functions of feedback. [4 marks]

Answer 33

Answer:
• Feedback is any kind of information received by a learner as a result of a particular response or act.
• This information would be available during and after the movement had been completed.
• And would be brought into the system both during the course of the movement and after the movement had been completed.
Functions of feedback are:
• Motivational - success or failure, clear goals, inspires the performer to continue striving for perfection.
• Reinforcing - increases the chance of the performer repeating the performance.
• Informational - the outcome of the performance, is it correct or incorrect?

Question 34

How would you make feedback effective when teaching a motor skill? [4 marks]

Answer 34

Answer:
Effective feedback:
• Feedback must be accurate and well-informed.
• Knowledge of results is important.
• Be specific and selective with information (not too much information at a time).
• Make the feedback interesting to hold attention and aid retention.
• Information should be understood by the performer.
• Feedback should be given straight after the performance.
• Encourage intrinsic feedback or the feel of the movement (kinaesthesis).

Question 35

Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic feedback. [2 marks]

Answer 35

Answer:
• Intrinsic feedback is information received by the athlete as a direct result of producing a movement through the kinaesthetic senses such as feelings from muscles, joints and balance.
• Extrinsic feedback is from an external source to the performer that can affect performance.
• And either motivate or demotivate the performer depending on the quality of the feedback.
• It consists of knowledge of performance and knowledge of results.

Question 36

What feedback might a coach give to a table tennis player who has just played a forehand drive and is attempting to read his opponent’s next shot. [3 marks]

Answer 36

Answer:
• Look at current positioning of opponent in terms of stance, racket head position.
• Anticipate changes in his position, speed and posture.
• Which may give clues to shot selection.

Question 37

Explain how feedback differs through the associative and autonomous stages of learning as a performer makes progress. [4 marks]

Answer 37

Answer:
4 marks from 4 of:
• Feedback involves using information that is available to the performer during and after the execution of a skill.
• During the associative stage of learning, the learner has an overall picture of what is required of the skill, but still makes mistakes.
• Intrinsic feedback involves the learner associating the ‘feel’ of the activity, via kinaesthesis, with the end result.
• And combined with extrinsic feedback through visual and auditory systems (from an external sources such a coach), by providing knowledge of performance and results, play a significant role as the performer makes progress.
• During the autonomous phase of learning, movements are well integrated as athlete is able to perform without conscious effort.
• The skilled athlete provides their own intrinsic feedback as he or she is able to judge and assess performances and make corrections by him or herself.
• The coach works in partnership with the athlete in the refining of technique.

Question 38

How is closed loop theory used to make a movement more skilful? [3 marks]

Answer 38

Answer:
Closed loop control contributes via:
• Proprioception or intrinsic feedback gives information about errors or correct movements.
• This information can then be used to correct errors or reinforce correct movement.
• Information is sent via the command mechanism or effector mechanism for muscular control.
• There has to be little conscious attention during closed loop control.

Question 39

Explain the contribution of the use of subroutines to open loop control and the autonomous phase of learning. [6 marks]

Answer 39

Answer:
Explanation of use of subroutines to open loop control:
• Well-learned subroutines linked together to produce a finely balanced skill.
• Contribute to the autonomous phase of learning due to the fact that the skill is well-learned.
• And little intervention is required from a coach.
• Little feedback is required (except for final knowledge of results or performance) because the skill is performed automatically.
• Hence open loop control, and the motor command to perform the skill produces the movement with very little feedback during the movement itself.
• The memory trace selects which motor unit to use and starts a movement.
• The perceptual trace regulates the body motion via kinaesthetic feedback.
• It is used to compare the correct response and actual response.
• Kinaesthetic feedback is used to correct movement patterns and adjust to changing needs to make a movement more skilful.

Question 40

Explain how feedback in a sports skill learning situation helps the sportsperson improve performance. [4 marks]

Answer 40

Answer:
• Helps with motivation, and increases self-confidence.
• Helps with detecting and correcting errors.
• Reinforces correct actions or skills, so that the performer knows what to do.
• Strengthens the S-R bond in the learning situation, so that the correct movement is perceived by the sportsperson to be the correct thing to do.
• Reduces or prevents bad habits.
• Helps reduce likelihood of inhibition (drive reduction theory).

Question 41

Discuss the idea that improvement in skill performance is dependent upon the nature and frequency of feedback provided by the coach. [12 marks]

Answer 41

Answer:
• Feedback describes the way in which information is received by the performer about a performance, and is known as knowledge of performance.
• There are several different types of feedback that can be used to improve performance: intrinsic, extrinsic (or augmented feedback), positive, negative, concurrent, terminal, knowledge of performance and knowledge of results.
• Intrinsic or internal feedback, available as a natural consequence of performing an action, is internally received via proprioceptors (kinaesthetic information).
• It is what the performer subjectively feels about their performance.
• For example: What are the performer’s thoughts and feelings (knowledge of performance) about their performance or training?
• Extrinsic or external feedback is received from external sources through vision and sound.
• It needs to be immediate, precise and accurate.
• Knowledge of results provides the performer about the outcome of the performance.
• If used correctly, it can motivate the performer.
• It can be positive, for example a coach gives praise to a tennis player when he or she serves a perfect serve.
• The coach would clearly indicate what was good about the performance.
• Positive feedback focuses on what the performer did well and suggests how further improvements could be made.
• Positive feedback will strength the stimulus-response bond (S-R) bond and will therefore reinforce learning.
• Positive feedback is particularly beneficial for learners at the cognitive and associative stages of learning.
• And so should be used frequently to reinforce learning.
• Once the performer has refined the skill i.e. autonomous stage of learning, less feedback is needed.
• However, some elite athletes become dependent on feedback.
• In most sports coaches are able to give feedback between rounds. In some sporting events, such as in Grand Slam tennis tournaments coaches are not allowed to give concurrent feedback to their players.
• And so when feedback is withdrawn or cannot be given their performance may deteriorate.
• Giving negative feedback to someone is not always useful as it fails to explain how improvements can take place.
• However, it can be beneficial to elite performers when analysing faults, in addition to providing a motivating influence to improve performance.
• Negative feedback should be used sparingly as it could suppress performance.
• For example, a coach who repeatedly feeds back information about faults, and gives very little help about how to correct them.
• Concurrent feedback is received during the performance and it is particularly beneficial for continuous skill as it allows quick corrections to occur.
• For example, a coach tells a runner when they are halfway through a marathon that they are 10 minutes ahead of their personal best performance.
• Terminal feedback occurs after the performance either immediately or a while after.
• Immediate terminal feedback allows the situation to be addresses while it is fresh in the mind of the performer. For example, a coach evaluates the performance of a netball team at the end of the game.
• Delayed feedback gives the performer a chance to assess their performance.
• Therefore it is important that the coach gives good quality, relevant feedback to ensure that learning is positive.
• Feedback, about movement errors, is one of the most important aspects of the learning environment.
• Without it performers and elite athletes would have little understanding of how to correct their errors.
• Feedback is not the only factor that accounts for improvements in performance, which is also dependent on other variables.
• The most important learning variable is practice itself.
• Both the amount and quality of practice are important for effective learning.
• In summary, a combination of feedback and practice account for most of the improvements in skill performances.

Question 42

Feedback is used by coaches to develop sports skills. Discuss how different types of feedback benefit from the use of technology. [15 marks]

Answer 42

Answer: Note: Many modern technologies are used by coaches to develop sports skills. You must select appropriate types of feedback that benefit from at least three different supporting technologies.
• Feedback describes the way in which information is received by the performer about a performance.
• Sports technology can be used to perfect technique through the use of analysis.
• By providing extrinsic or external feedback through vision and sound.
• The heart rate monitor is fairly old technology. However today’s monitors are very sophisticated with GPS tracking technology and associated mobile apps that can calculate training intensities, calorie burn, distance run, splits and data storage.
• The heart rate monitor can provide concurrent, terminal and delayed feedback.
• For example, a coach sets a prescribed running pace for a marathon race. During the race, the athlete is guided by a series of bleeps that informs the athlete of the prescribed pace against actual pace, thus providing concurrent feedback.
• At the end of the race the coach and athlete can review split times and critical threshold points in the race.
• Terminal feedback, from GPS heart rate monitors such as the Garmin range, facilitates knowledge of results that can be used to develop future race tactics.
• And later on this data can be downloaded to data storage facilities to compare results such as plotting performance graphs over time.
• This delayed feedback gives the coach a chance to assess their athlete’s performance and plan future training programmes.
• Other GPS systems, for example the GPsports system, can track the movements of players on a pitch, working out players’ average speeds, total distance travelled and positional locations in relation to opposition players.
• Many top soccer and rugby professional teams use GPS systems. The coach can plan training programmes, match tactics and strategies using this information.
• Video analysis and software provides both visual and auditory cues.
• Video analysis can be used to provide information in the form of extrinsic feedback to an athlete during continuous aerobic performance and between rounds in field events. Athletes are able to access their coaches during field events and receive appropriate feedback in preparation for their next throw or jump.
• Continuous feedback, derived from video analysis, could make all the difference between winning and losing an event, when the coach provides the athlete with a simple technical skill prior to the next jump or throw.
• Digital software, such as Dartfish, highlight technical aspects of performance using a variety of tools such as split screens, and comparison of performance against technical role models.
• Over time the coach can assess if technical improvements have been made.
• Notational analysis systems, also known as tally chart feedback, provide statistical or graphical format that highlight categories of strengths and weaknesses of a performance.
• This in-depth analysis provides quantitative data, such as the number of unforced errors and total points won in a tennis match.
• This type of match feedback provides significant athlete and coach feedback in terms of technical, mental and physical aspects of the game.
• Laser sensor equipment, such as electronic timing gates, is wirelessly connected to a mobile unit (tablet PC, Android phone) and all data is directly transferred to it.
• Since the runner is the only person, who can trigger the timer on electronic timing gates and stop it, there is practically no room for error.
• Data can be used between sprints and at the end of a training session.
• Once more providing information (knowledge of results) to both the athlete and coach in the form of continuous and terminal feedback.
• Digital software systems are very expensive and so may be limited to athletes and coaches who are financially well supported.
• Negative feedback from the coach (derived from such technologies), should be used sparingly as it could suppress the athlete’s performance.
• Positive feedback from the coach (derived from such technologies), will reinforce learning or performance of skill.

Question 43

What are the advantages and disadvantages of command, or authoritarian style in teaching a sport or sport skill? [4 marks]

Answer 43

Answer:
Advantages:
• More control or discipline.
• Good if time is short, this is more efficient.
• Good for dangerous situations.
• Effective for large groups or teams.

Disadvantages:
• No individual feedback.
• No participation in decision making.
• No social interaction.
• Creativity of performer not taken into account.

Question 44

What is meant by the reciprocal teaching style and what are its drawbacks? [5 marks]

Answer 44

Answer:
• Reciprocal style = teacher develops pupils as teachers.

Drawbacks are:
• Lack of control.
• May be false information is passed on.
• Lack of credibility of teacher-pupils.
• If communication skills poor, then teaching ineffective.

Question 45

What are the main advantages of the discovery method of teaching? [3 marks]

Answer 45

Answer:
Main advantages of discovery method of teaching are:
• Facilitates creativity.
• Sense of ownership over your own learning.
• Great deal of satisfaction if success is experienced.
• Work can be undertaken at the learner’s own pace.
• Many experiences can build a large store of schema.
• Learning is more long-lasting or more meaningful.

Question 46

Identify three factors affecting the use of coaching styles. [3 marks]

Answer 46

Answer:
3 marks for 3 of:
• The type of coach such as personality, experience, leadership style.
• Type of activity in terms of task complexity.
• The learner in terms of age, experience and fitness.
• The situation in terms of environmental factors such as weather and facilities.
• Time available.
• Risk or danger involved.
• Hand-eye coordination.

Question 47

How can the discovery style of coaching improve the performance of learners? [4 marks]

Answer 47

Answer:
4 marks for 4 of:
• The discovery style of coaching offers the learner a creative environment adopting a problem solving style.
• This method is useful if the teacher is trying to get the students to discover the most desirable movement for a certain task or to develop a new skill or possible strategies of specific games.
• This allows the students to experiment with different movements in order to achieve the desired goal.
• To analyze and make comparisons with other movement and motor responses.
• It will also increase their understanding of why certain movements are more advantageous and effective than others.
• Using this method can motivate students as a result of their ownership of the activity.

Question 48

Distinguish between the terms tactics and strategies, using examples to illustrate your answer. [4 marks]

Answer 48

Answer:
• Tactic involves a game plan that aims to improve the chance of an individual or team winning or improving their performance.
• For example, a tactic in tennis would be to move your opponent around the court.
• Strategy involves a general approach to a competitive scenario that may not include specific techniques and tactics.
• For example, a strategy for a football game could be a 4-4-2 pitch playing formation.

Question 49

Identify four factors that you may need to consider before choosing a tactic. [4 marks]

Answer 49

Answer:
4 marks for 4 of:
• Team or individual and opponent’s strengths.
• Team or individual and opponent’s weaknesses.
• Players available for selection.
• Conditions (pitch/court, weather).
• How much time remaining.
• Physical or mental demands of activity.
• Whether team is winning or losing.

Question 50

Select an individual or team activity. Describe a tactic which you could use because of its strength against an opponent’s weakness and describe why it is effective. [4 marks]

Answer 50

Answer:
• Named Activity – Badminton.
• Weakness - Poor backhand.
• Tactic used – Serve and play clears to opponents’ backhand.
• Why it was effective - Opponent plays weak returns from that side allowing player to finish many rallies off with a smash.

Question 51

Give three reasons for changing tactics during your selected individual or team activity. [3 marks]

Answer 51

Answer:
3 marks for 3 of:
• Player sent off or injured.
• Winning at the end of a game.
• Losing at the end of a game.
• Running out of time.
• Opponents changed their tactics.
• The conditions didn’t suit tactics.
• Opponents used an unexpected tactic.

Question 52

A goal attack (netball player title) is down the other end of the court, in a noisy indoor league competition. Suggest how the coach can get messages across to this player effectively? [2 marks]

Answer 52

Answer:
• By shouting loudly.
• By using hand gestures as a form of coded communication.

Question 53

Explain how the analysis of skills will influence a coaching in organising training for javelin throwing. [4 marks]

Answer 53

Answer:
• The breaking down of the skill into subroutines will enable the coach to analyse the movements objectively.
• And thereby set a programme for practice of the individual subroutines.
• Such as drills or individual skill practices.
• Which would then be incorporated into the motor programme as a whole.