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NUR111 > TOPIC 5 > Flashcards

TOPIC 5 Flashcards

1
Q

Nursing care of nutrition and elimination

A

Nurses assess persons nutritional status, supply adequate food ( that may have to be administered in a different way Eg. Nasogastric or perinatal- bypassing stomach and digestive system)
We look at swallowing and elimination and whether it’s being done right.
Nutrition can have an impact on other issues Eg. Wound healing or in general nutritional status and can have a role in how people recover
Some diseases that people do to hospital for are directly linked to the nutritional system or the digestive system
Nurses work closely with dietitians and patient education plays a very big role

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2
Q

2 main parts of the digestive system

A

The digestive system has 2 main parts: the alimentary canal and the accessory organs that are part of the digestive system

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3
Q

What is the alimentary canal

A

The alimentary canal - tube from the mouth to the anus, it is open to surrounding environment

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4
Q

What are the accessory organs

A

the accessory organs that are part of the digestive system not included in the alimentary canal Eg. Liver gallbladder, pancreases, teeth, tongue, salivary glands ones with Astrid in diagram above

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5
Q

The alimentary canal is covered by….?

A

Alimentary canal usually covered by the peritoneum because in the abdominal cavity ( exception is esphogus)
With serous membranes there is a visceral (directly covering the organ) and parietal part ( the lining of the actual abdominal cavity)

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6
Q

Digestive organs can either be intra peritoneal or retro peritoneal

T or F

A

T

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7
Q

What does it mean to be intra peritoneal

A

Digestive/Abdominal organs can either be intra peritoneal ( covered inside abdominal cavity with peritoneum) or retro peritoneal ( behind peritoneum) . Depends on when and how development in utero happens whether they are going to be included within the peritoneum cavity as well.

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8
Q

What does it mean to be retro peritoneal

A

Digestive/Abdominal organs can either be intra peritoneal ( covered inside abdominal cavity with peritoneum) or retro peritoneal ( behind peritoneum) . Depends on when and how development in utero happens whether they are going to be included within the peritoneum cavity as well.

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9
Q

What organs are intra peritoneal and what organs are retro peritoneal

A

Retro- pancreas, ascend and descending colon, kidney. Duodenum. Rectum. Sigmoid colon. Kidneys

Intra - stomach. Small intestine. Transverse colon. Liver. Gallbladder. Spleen. Ileum. Jejunum. Cecum. Appendix. Pancreas (tail only)

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10
Q

What are organs/ tissues that are suspended from the abdominal wall ( ventral and Doral parts) called

A

suspended peritoneal tissues are called mesenteries ( dorsal and ventral mesentaries)- are pretty much a doubling up/ folding over of peritoneal membranes/ also include a lot of fat storage

When you open up a person, will see one of mesenteries greater ormentum and it looks like a piece of netting with lots of fat in it

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11
Q

What is ingestion

A

Ingestion: taking food in

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12
Q

What is mechanical breakdown

A

Mechanical breakdown by chewing with teeth, Through digestive tract muscular contractions called peristalsis ( can occur in different ways Eg. Segmentation in small intestine), through churning in stomach breaking things down

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13
Q

What is propulsion

A

Propulsion: part of peristalsis, getting food slowly through whole digestive tract until it eventually gets expelled through defecation

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14
Q

What is digestion

A

Digestion: breaking things down chemically. Eg, monosaccharides to glucose. Happens so that it can be absorbed into blood vessels and lymphatic vessels

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15
Q

Movements that can assist with mechanical breakdown

A

Peristalsis and segmentation

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16
Q

What happens during peristalsis

A

Ajacent segments of the alimentary canal organs alternatively contract and relax.

  • food is moved along the tract distally
  • primarily propulsive; some mixing may occur
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17
Q

What happens during segmentation

A

Non ajacent segments of the alimentary canal contract and relax

  • food is moved forward, then backwards
  • primarily mixes food and breaks it down mechanically; some propulsion May occur
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18
Q

What direction does peristalsis occur

A

Cranial to distal

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19
Q

What are the 4 basic layers of the alimentary canal

in order from inside to outside/ lament to outside

A

1) mucosa 2) submucosa 3) muscularis externa 4) serosa

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20
Q

What is the mucosa layer of the alimentary canal like

A

split into epithelium- simple columnar epithelium tissue with mucus glands imbedded within it, is avascular so gets blood supply from the underlying, Lamina propria which is loose areolar connective tissue and contains some lymph follicles as alimentary canal is open to outside world so act as protection, there is also a little muscularis mucosae which is part of the mucosa but is also smooth muscle tissue

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21
Q

What is the submucosa layer of the alimentary canal like

A

loose areolar connective tissue with lots of elastic fibres, lots of blood supply, lymphatic supply and nerve supply as well ( one of the intrinsic nerve plexus Eg- submucosal nerve plexus), more glands in this layer

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22
Q

What is the muscularis externa layer of the alimentary canal like

A

chunky muscle layer needed to perform mechanical breakdown and peristalsis.

Has 2 main layers circular layer and longtudinal layer ( causes really strong powerful contractions can sometimes feel when stomach is rumbling). - there is also the oblique layer -
Can see between 2 types of muscles there are some nerves ( one of the intrinsic nerve plexus- myenteric nerve plexus )

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23
Q

What does plexus mean

A

Network of..

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24
Q

What is the serosa layer of the alimentary canal like

A

visceral part of peritoneum. Outside layer epithelium layer also known as mesothelium ( visceral part of peritoneum) is made up of simple squamous epithelial cells

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25
Q

Does gut have its own ‘nervous system’

A

gut has its own kind of nervous system called the: interic nervous system/ gut brain and whilst it’s linked to the brain a lot of the reflexes occur on a local level without the involvement of the CNS

Peristalsis and production of digestive enzymes and other secretions often just regulated on a local level
Local level= short reflex
If CNS involved= long reflex

Short reflex often triggered/ regulated by whatever happens in the gastro intestinal tract. Eg. Food enters system = stretches tract= kicks of short reflexes

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26
Q

What happens in the mouth

A

Mouth
ingestion
chewing ( voluntary)
Mixing with saliva ( 3 different cellular glands)
Taste let’s us know whether it’s safe to eat something or not
Forms bolus which then gets pushed into pharynx area where voice box sits
From then on involuntary movements

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27
Q

What is the serosa called in the esophagus

A

Oesophagus

Outside layer, instead of serosa have Adventita as not in peritoneum cavity

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28
Q

Where does esophagus start

A

Oesophagus starts at pharynx

Important function of pharynx is that it’s got to close of out trachea that’s achieved by closing the epiglottis so that food doesn’t enter our lungs. Involuntary.

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29
Q

Function of pharynx

A

Important function of pharynx is that it’s got to close of out trachea that’s achieved by closing the epiglottis so that food doesn’t enter our lungs. Involuntary.

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30
Q

What is the hiatus

A

Hiatus- change over from the Oesophagus to the stomach

Also we have a sphincter at enterance of stomach called gastro esophageal sphincter

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31
Q

What are sphincters like

A

Not a ring muscle, but still through peristalsis in different areas can close and open

If it doesn’t close properly sometimes stomach content can get back up into Oesophagus and this is called reflux

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32
Q

Swallowing process

A

buccaneers phase
bolus is producer by saliva and chewing and upper esophageal sphincter closes to push food down into pharynx

Pharyngeal esophageal phase
Tongue blocks mouth, epiglottis shuts off trachea so food travels down esophagus

Pharyngeal esophageal phase continues as constrictor muscles of pharynx contract, forcing food into the esophagus inferiority…

Peristalsis moves food through esophagus to stomach…

Gastro esophageal sphincter …

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33
Q

How much food can the stomach hold

A

Stomach can hold up to 4 litres of food, when empty about 50ml of food

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34
Q

REVIEW STOMACH DIAGRAM

A

Review stomach diagram

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35
Q

On lining of stomach what are the little holes called

A

Gland that come out as Gastric pits.

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36
Q

Variety of cells in gastric glands

A

Mucus neck cells

Parietal cells

Chief cells

Enteroendocrine cells

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37
Q

REVIEW DIAGRAM SHOWING LAYERS OF ALIMENTARY CANALS

A

REVIEW DIAGRAM SHOWING LAYERS OF ALIMENTARY CANALS

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38
Q

Order of cells from surface going down pits

A

Mucous neck cells

Parietal cells- monster looking ones

Chief cells- more of them than parietal cells

Enteroendocrine cells- on bottom of pits

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39
Q

What do mucus neck cells do

A

produce and acidic type of mucus

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40
Q

What do parietal cells do

A

produce HCL that produces acidic environment in stomach ( ph 1.5-3.5)

And

produces intrinsic factor that is required for the absorption of vitamin b 12 in small intestine. Vitamin b12 is important for haemoglobin ( oxygen carriers in erythrocyte) production p. HCL production in parietal cells is triggered by 1) histamine and 2) gatrin.

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41
Q

What do chief cells do

A

produce digestive enzyme called pepsinogen- inactive ( precursor to pepsin). Pepsinogen digests as pepsin once it get into the acidic environment of the stomach.

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42
Q

What do enteroendocrine cells do

A

secrete hormones and paracrines (various chemicals and messengers ) Eg. Histamine, gastrine, serotonin

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43
Q

What can you find in the submucosa of the stomach wall

A

Submucosal plexus

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44
Q

T of F

All digestive enzymes our body produces start of as inactivated

A

All digestive enzymes our body produces start off as inactivated first and only become active when they get into the area where they interact with the food otherwise we digest our own cells

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45
Q

Food in stomach + HCL + Pepsin =…?

A

Chyme

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46
Q

Stomach does mainly what

A

Stomach causes mainly mechanical breakdown and predigestion (Eg. HCL denatures some proteins and pepsin breaks it up a little further as well)

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47
Q

How is mucus epithelium protected from acidity

A

1) a lot of glands produce bicarbonate rich mucus which coats immediate layer of the epithelium, 2) very tight junctions inbetween the cells, 3) constant renewal of all those epithelial cells as they are a lot of stem cells in the gastric pits.

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48
Q

How does stomach regulate what enters intestines

A

depending on what’s happening in other sides of the digestive tract that will determine whether the stomach will open up or produce more hcl and pepsin or whether it will close and open certain sphincters
Stomach has function to not overload the duodenum, so it slowly releases bits and pieces

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49
Q

Can we live without our stomachs

A

We can actually live it out our stomach however as we don’t produce intrinsic factors they will have to be given as a medication. We also don’t have a holding vessel so need to be very careful to only eat small portions to not overload the duodenum
Various factors have a role in determining the stomach stays full, starts emptying out and what sort of secretions occur.

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50
Q

What is helicobacter pylory

A

Bacteria that caisss peptic ulcers in the stomach and duodenum

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51
Q

REVIEW DIAGRAM OF LIVER

A

…

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52
Q

How do parietal cells produce a uric environment in stomach

A

Hydrogen potassium pump/ proton pump as it pumps out protons (H+ from parietal cells into stomach
H+ Cl= hydrochloric acid
H+ ions come from formation of H2CO3 carbonic acid (co2 and h2o = hco3 which then gets chucked out of the cell back into the bloodstream ) the hydrogen protons on the other hand get pumped out with the active pumping of potassium into the cell ( we usually have more potassium in the cell anyway so it’s got to get in there actively against the concentration gradient/ it’s also very acidic in the stomach already so have to work against the concentration gradient to get protons into stomatch)
Cl travels through the cell just by diffusion and then potassium comes out of the cell quite easily by diffusion to then get pumped into it.

( in some cases medication can act on the proton pump to inhibit it to reduce the secretion of hydrochloric acid from parietal cells into stomach

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53
Q

If you cut liver open how does it look

A

Liver if cut open had all these little lobules and looks like honey comb
If you look at lobules closely you can see that there is a central vein in the middle surrounded by page like structures that consist of layers of hepatocytes and liver cells interspersed with Venus sinusoids ( all draining into central vein, which eventually gets into hepatic vein.

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54
Q

Where does blood in liver come from

A

It comes originally from intestines to the portal vein, then goes into synosoids where it’s filtered and processed, into central vein and eventually enter the hepatic veins, then vena cava, into heart and into body circulation

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55
Q

How does bile get transported In the liver

A

In liver they are also arteries and bile vessels ( where bile gets transported and the bile comes come out of the hepatocytes, into bile ducts and travels the opposite way to our Venus blood).

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56
Q

What do hepatocytes do

A

Hepatocytes are very busy cells, can produce a lot and regenerate fast and because of they produce so much have tons of smooth ( lipid production/ synthesis) and rough ( to assemble proteins] endoplasmic reticulum . Have lots of mitochondria as need lots of energy. Golgi apparatus very active as things are packages up and transported constantly. Have lysosomes ( digestive enzymes). Perioxisomes. ( fight toxic metabolites that occur in production of all things liver cells produce.

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57
Q

What are the functions units of the liver

A

Lobules in liver, functional units of liver, with the centeral canal producing lots of things and doing lots of metabolic Reactions, both synthesis and breakdown ( anabolic and catabolic reactions)

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58
Q

Liver produces bile by…

A

little bile canaliculi in between hepatocytes drain into bigger bile ducts which then transports bile into gallbladder.

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59
Q

What is bile

A

Bile is made up of bile salts which are responsible for digestion of fats but also contain bile pigments, cholesterol, triglycerides and phospholipid.

Bile pigment comes from bilirubin which is the breakdown of red blood cells in spleen. Billirubin is toxic to nerve cells and it’s got to excreted via bile which then enters the digestive tract to help with fat digestion.

Bile salts will then be reabsorbed into our blood stream and back to the liver because they get used again, whereas bile pigment will Excreted the large intestine and eventually be excreted with the faeces.

Bile pigment is what gives faeces the brown colour. If faeces isn’t brown and it’s whitish, know that something is going on with the liver because our bile pigment doesn’t get into the faeces.
95% of bile salts are reabsorbed and recycled

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60
Q

Bile pigment comes from

A

comes from bilirubin which is the breakdown of red blood cells in spleen. Billirubin is toxic to nerve cells and it’s got to excreted via bile which then enters the digestive tract to help with fat digestion.
Bile salts will then be reabsorbed into our blood stream and back to the liver because they get used again, whereas bile pigment will Excreted the large intestine and eventually be excreted with the faeces.

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61
Q

What gives faeces it’s brown colour

A

Bile pigment is what gives faeces the brown colour. If faeces isn’t brown and it’s whitish, know that something is going on with the liver because our bile pigment doesn’t get into the faeces.

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62
Q

What % of bile salts are reabsorbed

A

95%

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63
Q

What does the pancreas look like

A

There is head and tail
Head is surrounded by duodenum
Pancreas is retro peritoneal ( not lined by the peritoneum)

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64
Q

How do Pancreatic enzymes reach duodenum?

A

pancreatic enzymes are made in the pancreas and travel down the main pancreatic duct, there’s also a little accessory pancreatic duct.

At same time bile goes through the right and left hepatic ducts and into common ducts then get joined by the cystic duct from the gallbladder forming bile duct.

Bile duct together with pancreatic duct form a hepatopacreatic ampulla and sphincter

On inside of duodenum here it empties into duodenal papilla.

If we eat anything, all the pancreatic enzymes get released and bile stored in gallbladder is expelled as well.

65
Q

How much bile do we produce a day

A

100ml

66
Q

Types of pancreatic cells

A

islets if langerhans ( part of the endocrine function of the pancreas- endocrine function produces the hormones insulin)

67
Q

What do acinar are cells do

A

Acinar cells produce digestive enzymes in the pancreas ( protease- breaks down protein, amylase- break down carbohydrates, lipase- break down fat and nucleasis- break down nuclei acids ]

Also produce in active versions of digestive enzymes and it’s only once they reach the duodenum will they become active otherwise we would digest our pancreas.

Also produce a lot of alkaline mucus which contains a lot of bicarbonates because once we reach the duodenum we need to neutralise the chyme that comes out of the stomach which is still very acidic containing hydrochloric acid.

68
Q

What does pancreatic protease do

A

protease- breaks down protein,

69
Q

What does pancreatic amylase do

A

amylase- break down carbohydrates

70
Q

What does pancreatic lipase do

A

lipase- break down fat and nucleasis- break down nuclei acids ]

71
Q

What happens in the small intestines

A

Before Duodenum only been really broken down mechanically, with a little bit of hcl.

Breaking down into smaller components happens in small intestines

72
Q

Parts of the small intestines

A

3 parts: duodenum, jejunum, ileum

73
Q

Length and diameter of small intestines

A

Whole thing is about 6-7 meters long if stretched out, but 2 to 4 meters in a live person because of strong muscle tone.
2.5-4 cm in diameters
Starts with pyloric sytnter between stomach and duodenum and finnishes at illeocecal valve ( where you can see little appendix hanging off) before large intestine

74
Q

REVIEW INTESTINAL CELL DIAGRAM

A

…

75
Q

What increases SA in small intestines

A

lots of folds that increase absorption SA of small intestine to 200 square meters ( as big as a tennis court)

Mucosa and submucosa fold up into these circular folds where there are little villi extending

Mucosa and submucosa comes up even further and on top of our cells in the mucosa f the epithelial cells we also have the brush boader, the micro villi

76
Q

What cells are in the small intestines

A

Goblet cells

Enterocytes

Paneth cells

Stem cells

77
Q

What do goblet cells do

A

produce mucus

78
Q

What do enterocytes do

A

simple columnar cells that produce about 1-2 litres of watery mucus substance which is called the intestinal juice, absorptive cells

79
Q

What do enteroendocrine cells do

A

produce all the hormones and chemical messengers

80
Q

What do paneth cells of

A

part of immune response, contain and produces defences/ natural antibiotics and lysozyme) stem cells ( all cells get renewed and regenerated all the time

81
Q

Other than the various cells what else can we find in the small intestines

A

lymphoid tissue and other glands that produce some of bicarbonate rich mucus as well

82
Q

In the small intestine is there lots of blood supply

A

Lots of blood supply in submucosa, lymph vessels which are called the lacteal in the villi

83
Q

What happens when stuff beaches the large intestines

A

Food is already been broken into smallest components, everything that needs to be absorbed has already been absorbed into blood stream

Not responsible absorption except for water and some fat soluble vitamins as well as some of them get produced in the large intestines.

Production of faeces happens,that is then expelled

84
Q

Difference between large intestine and rest of alimentary canal

A

Macroscopically only difference is that like in the esophagus we have stratified squamous epithelium in the rectum and anus (understandable due to exposure to outside area)

Lots of gut bacteria and flora in large intestines

Appendix is part of it, there is ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid

85
Q

Is defecation involuntary

A

Just like with ingestion, when we defecate we do have a voluntary element it. There is an internal anal sphincter which is smooth muscle and the large external anal sphincter which is skeletal muscle and voluntary control

86
Q

What is defecation

A

Is basically a reflex arc
A long reflex through long reflex
The voluntary regulation of relaxing external sphincter will lead to expulsion of the stool which gets triggered before by stress reflexes that relax the smooth internal sphincter

87
Q

How does protein digestion happen

A 
Protein digestion ( into small amino acids) Pretty much same as carbohydrate digestion, amin
Some happens in stomach , A lot of it happens in small intestines.
 amino acids Move from lumen through the enterpcyte into the interstitial area and then the capillaries.
Again the amino acids go via secondary active transport hitching a ride with the sodium and the facilitated diffusion at other end

…Protiens are broken into large polypeptide by pepsin ( stomach glands ) in presence of hcl) in the stomach

Large polypeptides broken into small polypeptides and small peptides by pancreatic enzymes ( trypsin, chrymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase) in the smallintestines

These polypeptides and peptides are broken into amino acids by brush boarder enzymes ( amniopeptidase, carboxypeptidase and dipeptidase) in the small intestine

88
Q

Carbohydrates are how much of our diets

A

60%

89
Q

Can we digest all carbohydrates

A

Some carbohydrates we can’t digest like cellulose ( fibre)

90
Q

How is carbohydrates digested

A

Secondary active transport. Monosaccharides hitch ride with sodium ( which is following its natural gradient ) going in.
Go through facillitated diffusion out into interstitial area and then into capillaries.

Starch and disaccharides are broken down by salivary amylase in the mouth and pancreatic amylase in the small intestines into oligodaccharides and disaccharides
Oligosaccarides and disaccharides are then broken down into lactose ( further to galactose and glucose), Maltose ( to glucose) , sucrose ( to glucose and fructose) which can then be further broken down

91
Q

REVIEW LARGE INTESTINE DIAGRAM

A

Review large intestine diagram

92
Q

how does digestion of fats occur

A

fat is Not water soluble but if you look at chyme that is water soluable, so fat is just floating around as big globules on top of chyme because it can’t dissolve in watering environment in the intestines so it’s dealt with differently to proteins and carbohydrates.

1) Bile salts start attaching to them and break the fat gobble into little droplets
2) Increases the sa for pancreatic lipases to attack the fat and then break it down into glycerol and fatty acids which get packaged up into micelles where the hydrophilic parts will poke out to the outside and the lipophillic/ hydrophobic parts will be arranged on the inside.
3) They also package up a little bit of fat soluable vitamins, cholesterol into micelles.
- The micelles can get through the intestines quite easy because they are sort of water soluable.
4) When they get to enterocytes as there is a phospholipid membrane micelles break up and fatty acids and monoglycerides can travel through the cell and then get assembled inside the enterocytes but this time it’s called a chylomicron which then goes into lacteal/ lymphatic circulation which eventually joins Venus circulation

93
Q

what are short fatty acids

A

short fatty acids which are the Bi product of bacteria breaking down the fibre. They can get into the blood stream directly and they play a role in particularly preventing inflammation in the duct.

94
Q

what are the different sugar categorises

A

-Mono, -Di and polysaccharide. . The different sugars. All deriving from different plants. Although we do get lactose from dairy but mainly all our carbohydrates are plant derived.

95
Q

where do we get carbohydrates

A

-Mono, -Di and polysaccharide. The different sugars. All deriving from different plants. Although we do get lactose from dairy but mainly all our carbohydrates are plant derived.
Some of them we know that the polysaccharides we call starch
Longer chains and shorter chains. The longer the chains the longer it takes for the body to break them down
Also are some that are indigestible, fibres Eg. Cellulose which some bacteria like and do some useful things with them

96
Q

carbohydrate uses in the body

A

all about Glucose! All carbohydrates apart from fibre which we can’t break down get broken down into glucose and glucose is used in the body as fuel for all the reactions that will eventually synthesise atp.

Atp is the provider for our cells Eg. The brain and red blood cells will only use glucose for atp production. It doesn’t use any other food groups, other body cells can do this but the brain won’t. We will always need glucose to keep the brain going.

Anything we take into our cells in excess of what gets used will be turned into fat.

Some saccarides are part of cell membrane ( glycocalyx)

97
Q

how much of our diet is carbohydrates

A

45-65% of the diet should be made up of carbohydrates

98
Q

dietary sources of lipids

A

most of the lipids we have in our diets are triglycerides (=glycerol + 3 fatty acid chains ) we also have phospholipids, cholesterol and prostaglandins.

We also have essential fatty acids, the body can’t make them (lynolaic acid and Lyolenic) and there fore we must have them as part of our diet

Unsaturated liquid oils are mainly our plant derived oils where as solid fats are animal derived fats from dairy or meat and cholesterol is solely from animal products.

No plants contain cholesterol. ( 85% of body’s cholesterol is actually made by the liver so regardless of how much we take in the liver will still make a lot of cholesterol.

99
Q

types of tryglycerides

A

-Triglycerides depending on what their fatty acid chains are made up of they are either…
saturated triglycerides; solid fat at room temperature

unsaturated- liquid oils at room temperature

  • we can also artificially manipulate triglycerides that are usually liquids to turn them into solid fats Eg. Margarine and they contain trans fats.
100
Q

lipid uses in the body

A
  • lipids can be used as fat deposits, can be used of fuel in times of insufficient carbohydrate supply.
  • Are a big part of the phospholipid cell membrane particularly our cholesterol. They help us to absorb fat soluable vitamins and are also a very important part of our myelin sheaths around our nerve axons that insulate our nerve axons. Some of them also particularly cholesterol is responsible for synthesising steroid hormone and vitamin d
  • If we have a low fat diet and consume exess carbohydrates they will be turned into fat anyway. Any overconsumption will turn into fat.
  • Atp production in skeletal muscle and liver
101
Q

how much lipids do we require in our diets

A

20-35% of diet

102
Q

quick brief of digestion and absorpion of lipids again

A

absorption and digestion of lipids are a bit different as they are not water soluable so they can’t just be transported around in the blood. The bile breaks down the fat globules into the droplets and then the mi cells that are the result of breaking down by lipase will enter the entrocytes in the small intestines and there get packaged up again as chylomicrons and end up in the lymphatic system

103
Q

Protein dietary sources

A

animal and plant products- soy, legumes and grains
Complete and incomplete proteins, refers to whether all the amino acids are present in a protein or not. If all present is complete, if not it’s incomplete and that refers to pretty much the essential amino acids, the amino acids that we can’t make in our body

104
Q

What does incomplete and complete proteins refer to

A

animal and plant products- soy, legumes and grains
Complete and incomplete proteins, refers to whether all the amino acids are present in a protein or not. If all present is complete, if not it’s incomplete and that refers to pretty much the essential amino acids, the amino acids that we can’t make in our body

105
Q

Protein uses in the body

A
  • important structural and functional molecules in the body and amino acids needed to make proteins particularly in the liver but also in other body cells (in our rough ER where we make proteins and there is an all or nothing rule so all the necessary amino acids to make a protein need to be present. If not then that protein doesn’t get made. )
  • There is also a positive or negative nitrogen balance. Has to do with whether there is more proteins being built and sythesised than broken down, that happens during times of growth Eg. Childhood, pregnancy,when you exersise a lot so you build up muscle= positive nitrogen balance. Negative nitrogen balance happens when the breakdown of protein is greater than the production of protein, which often happens during illness fever and particularly in burns.
  • ATP production if no carbs or fats
106
Q

Where are essential amino acids found

A

We can’t store essential amino acids so we have to have them in our diet. Thats why you have look at your diet and make sure you have enough complete protiens in your diet to make sure you have those essential amino acids. Doesn’t mean you have to have animal products. Soy is a complete plant protein that contains all the essential amino acids or you have to combine them to make sure you everything in there.

107
Q

Protein dietary requirements

A

0.8 g/kg body weight/ day

108
Q

What are the essential amino acids

A

Tryptophan, methionine, valine, threonine, phlenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, histidine ( infants only), arginine ( infants only)
Corn and beans together can provide all eight essential amino acids

109
Q

Brief of protein breakdown

A

Starting in the stomach with the pepsin and the hcl. Final breakdown in the small intestines with the pancreatic enzymes and then again like with carbohydrates getting into the entrocytes where they are completely broken down into amino acids and finally released into the blood stream

110
Q

2 other food groups apart from main ones of carbohydrates, proteins and fats

A

vitamins and minerals

111
Q

What are vitamins we have

A
  • fat soluable ones are ( a,e,d,k)
  • Water soluable ones are vitamin b complex and vitamin c
  • B12 absorption in the small intensities requires intrinsic factor (parietal cells in stomach )
112
Q

Vitamins uses in the body

A

Mainly used as coenzymes, molecules that can make a chemical reaction happen and at a much lower activation energy

Lots of enzymes in body regulating and triggering chemical reactions and a lot of them require coenzymes

113
Q

What are minerals in the body

A

play an important role. A lot of our ions in the body that are responsible for Eg. Resting membrane potential, calcium is important for nerve impulses. They are also important for building things eg. Calcium in the bones

Ca, P, S, K, Na, Mg ( require in larger quantities)

Trace elements, Eg. Fe- haemoglobin production , Zn-wound healing , Cu ( we require in minor quantities)

114
Q

What is chemical energy

A

Chemical energy is stored in food and used to make atp

-Used by cells directly for energy needs, as cells can’t get energy from food directly

115
Q

What happens in cellular respiration

A
  • energy in food removed ( breakdown of food molecules)
  • Used to make atp ( phosphorylation)
  • Glucose ( a carbohydrate)-> glycolysis in cytoplasm and produces 2 atp. (anarobic process however…) if oxygen is present the breakdown continues inside the mitochondria with 2 sets of reactions (aerobic reactions)

1 ) citric acid cycle/ Krebs cycle 2) the electron transport system.. these produce 36 more atp= overall 38 atp in total

In the end the original glucose is broken down into CO2, H2O and ATP
O2 in the respiratory system maximises ATP production, CO2 exhaled as it is a product of aerobic respiration

116
Q

End product of cellular respiration

A

In the end the original glucose is broken down into CO2, H2O and ATP
O2 in the respiratory system maximises ATP production, CO2 exhaled as it is a product of aerobic respiration

117
Q

What happens after glycolysis

A

The first molecule from glucose breakdown Pyruvic acid (which can also get from breaking down of glycerol, one of the parts of the triglycerides) happens outside the mitochondria and that’s called glycolysis.

The second molecule ( which is now in the mitochondria !) the next step down is acetyl CoA. This is the one that will enter the citric acid cycle

Following the citric acid cycle the oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain) process occurs

118
Q

Which recess yields the most citric acid

A

Glycolysis and citric acid cycle don’t yeild that much atp- maybe about 4. the oxidative phosphorylation produce about 28 more

119
Q

What is Substrate level phosphorylation

A

high energy phosphate group is transferred directly from a substrate from ADP to form ATP. Occurring in the cytosol and mitochondrial matrix
Not as efficient

120
Q

What is Oxidative phosphylation

A

electron transport protiens “pump” protons, creating proton gradient. Atp synthase uses the energy of the proton gradient to bind phosphate groups to adp. Occurring only in the mitochondrial matrix

121
Q

Simple explanation of electrons transported chain

A

electrons churn through ‘pump’ and this causes atp production
Produces a lot more atp

Or

The energy released by electrons is used to pump hydrogen ions across the inner membrane of the mitochondria creating an area of high hydrogen concentration. Hydrogen ions flow through the ‘turbine’ . The flow of hydrogen ions spins the turbine which activated atp

122
Q

Define cellular respiration

A

atp production in all body cells

123
Q

What happens during the citric acid cycle

A

The pyruvic acid from glycolysis enters the mitochondrial matrix where it’s broken down into Acetyl CoA

(coenzymes ( Eg, NAD, FAD) the citric acid cycle oxidises it to CO2 pick up a hydrogen from the reaction to be later used in the electron chain phosphorylation at this time)

Acetyl CoA once produced is the first product of the citric acid cycle and is followed by many other intermediate molecules ( collectively known as keto acids)

124
Q

Cellular respiration formula

A

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 H2O+ 6 CO2 + 32 ATP + heat

Glucose + oxygen -> 6 water, 6 carbon dioxide, energy and heat

125
Q

Does glycolysis need oxygen

A

Glycolysis doesn’t actually need oxygen, it’s the other 2 processes that need oxygen

126
Q

Define glycolysis

A

Glycolysis: Converts glucose to pyruvic acid

127
Q

Define Glycogenesis:

A

Polymerizes glucose to form glycogen

128
Q

Define Glycogenolysis:

A

Hydrolyzes glycogen to glucose monomers

129
Q

Define Gluconeogenesis:

A

Forms glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors Eg. Protiens

130
Q

What produces more calories lipids of protiens and canohydrates

A

Lipids produce more than twice amount of calories than protiens and carbohydrates.
Muscle fibres and liver cells happy to use as energy From proteins and lipids however the brain only like glucose

131
Q

carbohydrate metabolic processes

A

Glycolysis: Converts glucose to pyruvic acid

Glycogenesis: Polymerizes glucose to form glycogen

Glycogenolysis: Hydrolyzes glycogen to glucose monomers

Gluconeogenesis: Forms glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors Eg. Protiens

132
Q

lipids metabolic processes

A

Beta oxidation

Lipolysis

Lipogenesis

133
Q

What is beta oxidation

A

Converts fatty acids to acetyl CoA

134
Q

What is lipolysis

A

Breaks down lipids to fatty acids

135
Q

What can happen after lipolysis

A

Beta oxidation - fatty acids being converted to Acetyl CoA and glycerol (which can be converted and enter the glycolysis straight away)

136
Q

What waste product can result from lipolysis

A

Lipolysis can cause a potential waste product called ketone bodies,

Happens when there are insuffiencient intermediate molecules ( carbohydrates ) in the kerbs cycle. If we don’t have these then our Acetyl CoA can’t progress through the citric acid cycle and we have a build up of Acytl CoA and fatty acids can’t be broken down/ oxidised completely.

The accumulated Acetyl CoA gets shipped to the liver which breaks it down into ketone bodies which then travel via the blood stream to be excreted by the urine.

Problem is ketone bodies are very acidic so lower the blood PH which we don’t like as need to keep btwn 3.4-4.5

137
Q

Normal blood pH

A

7.45-7.45

138
Q

What is lipogenesis

A

happens when theres a lot of glucose in the blood, enough cellular atp. Body puts lipids together to triglycerides that are stored in subcutaneous or adipose tissue. Forms lipids from acetyl CoA and 
glyceraldehyde 3-phosph

139
Q

What happens if there is no carbs or lipids to break down for energy

A

If not enough carbs or lipids, Muscle tissue gets broken down and provide Amino acids which get tuned into keto acids (intermediate molecules in citric acid cycle).

  • Keto acids can also be turned back into glucose by gluconeogenesis in liver.

Proper gluconeogenesis can only happen in the liver with glucose 6 phosphate

140
Q

what are the 2 metabolic processes for producing energy from protien

A

Transamination

Oxidative deamination

141
Q

what is transamination

A

Transamination: Transfers an amine group
from an amino acid to a-ketoglutaric
acid, generating glutamic acid

142
Q

what is oxidative deamination

A

Oxidative deamination: Removes an amine group (as ammonia) from glutamic acid and regenerates
a-ketoglutaric acid

143
Q

what waste product is produced when amino acids are broken down

A

Ammonia is a waste product produced when amino acids are broken down that is very toxic to body cells , exp nerve cells so it gets converted to urea in liver to get excreted via kidneys in urine

144
Q

what happens to unused glucose

A

Glucose that doesn’t get turned into glycogen for storage or triglycerides for storage.
Everything from diet not immediately needed will be turned into triglycerides stored in adipose tissue

145
Q

what is cholesterol

A

Cholesterol is a part of lipids we take in and is the basis for steroid hormones, a precursor of vitamin d, an essential part of plasma membrane

146
Q

how is cholesterol transported in the bod

A
  • Transported in the blood bound to lipoprotein complexes as it is not water soluble it is a lipid
  • lipoproteins vary in the percentage of lipid that they contain. They contain triglycerides, phospholipid and cholesterol in addition to protiens
  • The more lipid you have in a protein the lower is the density ( VLDL, LDL, HDL) also more lipid less protein,more protein less lipids
147
Q

what transports lipids from the enterocytes to te lypphatic system

A

chylomicrons

148
Q

what do very low density lipoprotiens

A

transport triglycerides from liver to peripheral tissues. Once they have given these off, they are left with a lot of cholesterol
Too much cholesterol can form plaques in our arteries and cause arthrosclerosis

149
Q

what do low density lipoprotiens do

A

Low density- cholesterol from liver to tissues

150
Q

what do high density lipoprotiens do

A

High density - acts like a mop, collecting any cholesterol floating around not needed and takes it back to the liver to then be included into bile salts which can be excreted via bile in faeces

151
Q

LDL vs HDL which is the good one

A

LDL- bad cholesterol

HDL- good cholesterol

152
Q

What kind of cholesterol do diets high in saturated fats stimulate

A

Diets high in saturated fats stimulate the liver to produce the LDL and not as much HDL

Whereas unsaturated fats promote lots of HDL and not as much LDL in the liver
Trans fats increase LDL production

153
Q

What kind of cholesterol do diets with unsaturated fats stimulate

A

unsaturated fats promote lots of HDL and not as much LDL in the liver

Omega 3 fatty acids is an unsaturated oil that’s beneficial at producing HDL

154
Q

What kind of cholesterol do diets with trans fats stimulate

A

Trans fats increase LDL production

155
Q

How do we regulate temperature (too hot)

A

S- increased body temperature

M/ R - heat loss centre in hypothalamus

E- skin blood vessels dilate, sweat glands secrete perspiration which is vaporised by body heat, helping to cool the body

R- body temperature decreases: blood temp declines and heat loss center shuts off

F- normal body temperature ( 35.8-38.2)

156
Q

How do we regulate temperature ( too cold)

A

S- decreased body temperature

M/ R - heat promoting centre

E- skin blood vessels constrict, skeletal muscles activated when more heat must be generated, shivering begins

R- body temperature ss: blood temp rises and heat promoting center shuts off

F- normal body temperature ( 35.8-38.2)

157
Q

How do we regulate hunger and fullness

A
  • in hypothalamus which release certain hormones that trigger other hormones ( Eg. CRH, orexins)
    orexins -promote hunger
    CRH -suppress hunger promoting surtiety.
  • also have stretch receptor in our Gi tract which also release various nervous sensations via the vagal nerve and that will also suppress the hunger sensation in the brain
  • If lots of nutrients in the blood that will also trigger hunger suppression
  • Gut and other hormones Eg. Ghrelin, glucagon, adrenaline stimulates hunger
  • Gut hormones insulin and CCK suppress hunger
  • Leptin from adipose cells is the biggest hunger suppressor we have,
  • ghrelin is the biggest promoter
158
Q

Obese people and leptin

A

Leptin from adipose cells is the biggest hunger suppressor we have,

ghrelin is the biggest promoter

Obese people seem to have a leptin resistance to it can’t do its job.

Other factors include: logical factors (comfort foods, stress), cultural factors, age ( younger the higher your metablic rate) and gender ( males higher metabolic rate), thyroid function ( basal metablic rate], temperature ( cold increases hunger), gut bacteria, sleep, viral infections

NUR111 (6 decks)

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