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NUR111 > TOPIC 1 > Flashcards

TOPIC 1 Flashcards

1
Q

The sternal region of the body is __________ to the umbilical region.

A

superior

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2
Q

superior means what direction?

A

Also known as cranial. Towards the head end of upper part of a structure or the body; above

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3
Q

The plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts is called the __________.

A

frontal plane

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4
Q

what are the 5 planes for dividing the body?

A 
transverse
sagittal 
midsagittal
oblique
frontal
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5
Q

what is homeostatic imbalance

A

Disturbance of homeostasis

Eg. illness, overwhelmed negative feedback, distinctive positive feedback takeover, ageing

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6
Q

what are the levels of structural organisation that make up life? ( in order from small to large)

A

cellular, tissue, organ, organ system

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7
Q

what is the air we breath made up of?

A

20% oxygen, 78 nitrogen, co2, helium and neon

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8
Q

what are the 5 body cavities?

A 
the vertebral cavity
the abdominopelvic cavity
the thoracic cavity
the ventral body cavity
the dorsal body cavity
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9
Q

components of homeostatic control systems?

A

receptor
control center
effector

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10
Q

The respiratory system contains the __________.

A

The respiratory system consists of the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

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11
Q

The spleen is an organ in the __________.

A

lymphatic system

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12
Q

what is the difference between positive and negative feedback

A

Negative- opposite initial change
eg. Blood glucose regulation

Positive- enhances original stimulus accelerating response
eg.labor contractions causing the release of oxytocin, which results in an increase in the quantity of labor contractions
Or blood clotting when the lining of a blood vessel is injured

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13
Q

what organs are in the dorsal cavity?

A

…The spinal cord is located in the dorsal body cavity.

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14
Q

Which two systems monitor the body for homeostasis?

A

nervous and endocrine

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15
Q

Which body system functions to produce blood cells?

A

skeletal

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16
Q

Which of the following is NOT a necessary human life function?
movement,excretion, responsiveness, intelligence, metabolism

A

intelligence

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17
Q

what is the principle of complementarity?

A

….The principle of complementarity describes how the function of a system is dependent upon the form of the structures that compose that system.

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18
Q

Which example best illustrates the principle of complementarity?

  • the set point of homeostasis
  • the hierarchical organization of the body
  • negative, but not positive, feedback mechanisms
  • Convolutions of the small intestines provides greater surface area for nutrient absorption.
A

Convolutions of the small intestines provides greater surface area for nutrient absorption.

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19
Q

Which membrane directly covers the heart?

A

Visceral serosae cover organs, such as the visceral pericardium, which covers the heart.

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20
Q

The branch of anatomy that traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span is referred to as __________.

A

Developmental anatomy

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21
Q

The ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them is a physiological ability known as __________.

A

Responsiveness

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22
Q

What are tissues

A

Tissues are groups of similar cells that have a common function.

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23
Q

What are atoms

A

Smallest particle of an elemental substance that exhibits the prop- erties of that element; composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

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24
Q

What are organs

A

A part of the body formed of two or more tissues and adapted to carry out a specific function; e.g., the stomach.

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25
Q

Most feedback Is negative TRUE OR FALSE

A

True

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26
Q

what is the anatomical position?

A

It is the initial reference point to indicate direction. “ Thumbs facing outwards, palms forward, feet slightly apart, body is standing ‘at attention’ “

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27
Q

What is the axial part of the body?

A

axial part, which makes up the main axis of our body, includes the head, neck, and trunk.

Contrasts to the appendicular parts of the body

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28
Q

What is the appendicular part of the body?

A

The appendicular part consists of the appendages, or limbs, which are attached to the body’s axis.

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29
Q

What does the transverse plane do?

A

divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) portions in the horizontal plane

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30
Q

What does the oblique plane do?

A

cuts the body diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical planes

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31
Q

What does the frontal plane do?

A

Frontal planes, however, divide the body into anterior and posterior parts. A frontal plane is also called a coronal plane

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32
Q

What does the midsaggital plane do?

A

divides the body in two equal left and right sides along the midline

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33
Q

What does the Sagittal plane do?

A

divides the body into left and right parts that are parallel to, and therefore not directly on, the midline

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34
Q

The body’s ability to provide nutrients to target tissues is a cooperative effort between which two body systems?

A

Digestive and cardiovascular

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35
Q

The body cavity that houses the lungs is known as the __________.

A

pleural cavity

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36
Q

What are the 9 abdominopelvic regions

A

First row(L to R) : right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac

Second row(L to R) : right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar

Third row(L to R) : right iliac,hypogastric, left iliac

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37
Q

**What does proximal mean?

A

Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

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38
Q

What does distal mean?

A

Father away from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

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39
Q

What does deep mean? What does superficial mean?

A

Superficial - Towards the body surface

Deep- away from the body surface

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40
Q

What does lateral mean?

A

Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of

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41
Q

Define anatomy?

A

Studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. Concrete as structures can be seen and closely examined

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42
Q

Define physiology?

A

Concerns function of the body, how body parts work and carry out life sustaining activities

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43
Q

What is gross macroscopic anatomy?

A

Study of large body structures visible to the naked eye Eg. Heart, lungs and kidney

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44
Q

What are the 3 types of gross macroscopic anatomy?

A

Regional, systemic an surface anatomy

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45
Q

What is regional anatomy

A

All structures in a particular region of the body Eg. Abdomen or leg being examined at the same time

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46
Q

What is systemic anatomy

A

Body structure studied system by system Eg. Cardiovascular system ( heart and blood vessels)

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47
Q

What is surface anatomy

A

Study of internal structures as they relate to overlying skin surfaces Eg. Identifying bulging muscles on body builders in order to locate appropriate blood vessels

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48
Q

What is microscopic anatomy?

A

Study of body structures too small to be seen with naked eye. Often view the tissues under a microscope

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49
Q

What are the 2 types of microscopic anatomy?+ definitions

A

Cytology- consists of cells of body

histology- study of tissues

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50
Q

What is embryology?

A

Subdivision of developmental anatomy. Study of developmental changes occurring before birth.

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51
Q

4 Essential tools for studying anatomy?

A
  • observation
  • manipulation
  • palpitation ( feeling with hands)
  • Auscultation ( listening to organ sounds with stethoscope)
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52
Q

What are the subdivisions of physiology

A

Renal physiology - kidney function/ urine production
Neurophysiology - workings of nervous system
Cardiovascular physiology - operation of heart and vessels

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53
Q

Difference between anatomy and physiology?

A

A- static image of body

P- reveals dynamic and animated workings. Usually focus on cellular and molecular levels. Rests on principles of physics

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54
Q

What happens at the chemical level of structural organisation?

A

Atoms to molecules( eg. Water + proteins) to organelles

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55
Q

What happens at the cellular level of structural organisation?

A

Organelles to Cells which vary in size and shape reflecting unique functions

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56
Q

What happens at the tissue level of structural organisation?

A

Groups of similar cells form tissues which reflect different functions

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57
Q

What are the 4 types of tissue?

A

Epithelium, muscle, connective, nervous

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58
Q

What happens at the organ level of structural organisation?

A

Complex functions occur Eg. Stomach

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59
Q

What happens at the organ system level of structural organisation?

A

Organs work together to accomplish common purpose Eg. Cardiovascular system

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60
Q

What is the final level of structural organisation?

A

Organism, the human- represents total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive

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61
Q

What are the necessary life functions?

A 
Maintaining boundaries 
Movement 
Contractabiliy
Responsiveness
Digestion
Metabolism
Excretion
Reproduction
Growith
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62
Q

Why is Maintaining boundaries an important life function?

A

So internal environment remains distinct from external environment. Eg. Cell membranes, integumentary system ( skin)

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63
Q

Importance of movement

A
  • activities are supported by muscular system.
  • skeletal system provides framework for muscles to pull on
  • movement of blood, foodstuff, urine being propelled through internal systems
  • muscle cells ability to move by shortening is called contractabiliy
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64
Q

Importance of responsiveness?

A

( excitability) ability to sense changes ( stimuli) in environment and respond

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65
Q

Importance of digestion?

A

Breaking down of ingested foodstuff to simple molecules that can be absorbed into blood.

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66
Q

Importance of metabolism?

A
  • metabolism is all chemical reactions that occur in body cells.
    ( anabolism, catabolism, cell respiration etc.)
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67
Q

Importance of excretion?

A

Process of removing wastes from body. Involves digestive, urinary system etc.

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68
Q

Importance of reproduction ?

A
  • occurs at cellular and organismal level

- growth and repair,

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69
Q

Importance of growth?

A

Increase in size of body part or organism as a whole

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70
Q

Survival needs of the body + why are they important?

A

Nutritients- taken via diet, contain chemical substances used for energy and cell building. Eg. Plant foods rich in minerals, carbs, vitamins

Oxygen- chemical reactions that release energy are oxidative and require oxygen

Water- 50-60% of body weight, universal solvent, watery environments or chemical reactions, base for secretions and excretions

Normal body temperature- 37°C, too hot = frantic chemical reactions and enzymes denature, too cold= metabolic reactions slow and eventually stop

Atmospheric pressure- force that air exerts on surface of body. Breathing and gas exchange depend on appropriate atmospheric pressure

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71
Q

What are the 11 body systems

A
  • integumentary
  • skeletal
  • muscular
  • Nervous
  • endocrine
  • cardiovascular
  • lymphatic
  • respiratory
  • digestive
  • urinary
  • reproductive ( male and female)
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72
Q

What is the Integumentary system

A

…

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73
Q

Integumentary system physical features?

A

Hair, skin, nails, external body coverings

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74
Q

Integumentary system functions?

A

Protects deeper tissues from injury,
Synthesises vitamin D,
Houses Cutaneous receptors ( pain, pressure),
Houses sweat and oil glands

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75
Q

Skeletal system physical features

A

Bones, joints

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76
Q

Skeletal system functions

A

Protects and supports body organs,
Provides framework for muscle attachment for movement,
Blood cells form within bone marrow
Bones store minerals

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77
Q

Muscular system physical features

A

Skeletal muscles

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78
Q

Muscular system functions

A 
Allows manipulation of environment,
Locomotion,
Facial expression, 
Maintains posture,
Provides heat
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79
Q

Nervous system physical features

A

Spinal cord, nerves and brain

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80
Q

Nervous system functions

A

Control system,

Internal and external change response by ctovating appropriate muscles and glands

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81
Q

Endocrine system physical features

A

Ductless glands,
Several but 9 major are:
Pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, thymus, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads

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82
Q

Endocrine system functions

A

Secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, metabolism etc.

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83
Q

Cardiovascular system physical features

A

Heart and blood vessels

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84
Q

Cardiovascular system functions

A

Blood vessels transport blood which carries oxygen, co2, nutrients, water etc.
the heart pumps blood

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85
Q

Lymphatic system physical features

A

Nodes, spleen, lymph vessels, thymus, thoracic ducts?, red bone marrow

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86
Q

Lymphatic system functions

A

Picks fluid leaked and returns it to blood,
disposes debris in lymphatic system,
Houses lymphocytes,
Involved in immunity

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87
Q

Respiratory system physical features

A

Lungs, bronchus, trachea, larynx, pharynx, nasal cavity

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88
Q

Respiratory system functions

A

Keeps o2 up in blood,

Removes co2

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89
Q

Digestive system physical features

A

Oral cavity, esophogus, liver, stomach, small intestine, Large intestine, rectum, anus

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90
Q

Digestive system functions

A

Breaks down food into absorbable units to enter blood for distribution.
Indigestible foodstuff is excreted

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91
Q

Urinary system physical features

A

Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

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92
Q

Urinary system functions

A

Eliminates nitrogenous water, regulates water electrolyte and acid base balance of the blood

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93
Q

Male reproductive system physical features

A

Prostate, penis, testes, scrotum, ductus deferens

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94
Q

Male reproductive system functions

A

Produce sperm + male sex hormone

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95
Q

Female reproductive system physical features

A

Mammary glands, ovary, uterus, vagina, uterine tube

96
Q

Female reproductive system functions

A

Overuse produce egg+ sex hormones,
Uterus acts as site for fertilisation and developmental,
Mammary glands produce milk

97
Q

What is homeostasis? And what is homeostatic control?

A

Homeostasis is Ability maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though outside world changes continuously

Homeostatic control- communication within body is essential for homeostasis

98
Q

What are the endocrine and nervous systems mode of communication

A

E- blood Bourne hormones

N- electrical immpulses

99
Q

What are the feedback loop steps?

A 
Stimulus
Receptor 
( afferent path)
Modulator / Control center 
(Efferent path)
Effector
Response
Feedback
100
Q

What does it mean to be inferior?

A

Also known as caudal. Away from the head end or towards the lower part of a structure or the body; below

101
Q

What does it mean to be anterior?

A

Also known as ventral.

102
Q

What does it mean to be posterior?

A

Also known as dorsal.

103
Q

What does it mean to be medial?

A

Toward the midline of the body ; on the inner side of

104
Q

What does it mean to be superficial?

A

Also known as external.

105
Q

What does it mean to be deep?

A

Also known as internal.

106
Q

REVIEW REGIONAL TERMS

A

REVIEW REGIONAL TERMS

107
Q

What cavities are in the dorsal cavity?

A

Cranial

Vertebral

108
Q

What cavities are In the ventral cavity?

A

Pelvic, abdominal ( abdominopelvic)

Thoracic

109
Q

What is in the thoracic cavity?

A

Heart, lungs

110
Q

What is in the abdominopelvic cavity

A

Pelvic- bladder, reproductive organs

Abdominal- stomach, liver etc.

111
Q

What is in the cranial cavity?

A

Brain

112
Q

What is in the vertebral cavity?

A

Spinal cord

113
Q

What divides thoracic and abdominal cavity?

A

Diaphragm

114
Q

What cavities are in the thoracic cavity?

A

Superior meditinum-
Pleural cavities-
Pericardial cavity ( within mediastinum)

115
Q

Walls of ventral cavity + outer surface of organs lined by____?

A

Serosa membranes. Parietal serosa is the part of membrane lining cavity wall

116
Q

Serous membranes are separated in body by____?

A

Serous fluid secreted by both membranes.

117
Q

***What cavities are in the thoracic cavity?

A

Superior meditinum-
Pleural cavities-
Pericardial cavity ( within mediastinum)

118
Q

What is in the right hypochondriac region

A

Liver

Gallbladder

119
Q

What is in the right epigastric region?

A

Stomach

120
Q

What is in the left hypochondriac region?

A

Diaphragm

Spleen

121
Q

What is in the right lumbar region?

A

Ascending colon of large intestine

Small intestine

122
Q

What is in the umbilical region

A

Small intestine

Transverse colon of large intestine

123
Q

What is in the left lumbar region

A

Defending colon of large intestine

124
Q

What is in the right iliac region

A

Appendix

Cecum

125
Q

What is in the left iliac

region

A

Initial part of the sigmoid colon

126
Q

The cavity that houses the lungs is the…

A

Pleural cavity

127
Q

What is the trunk

A

The central/ core part of your body

- between neck and limbs

128
Q

6:If you know that the appendix lies in the right lower part of the trunk, you could also say it lies in the __________.

A

Right inguinal region

This is the medical term for the lower right area of the trunk.

129
Q

What is in the orbital cavity?

A

Eye

130
Q

Functions of serous fluid?

A
  • it fills the potential space between the visceral and parietal
  • it allows freedom of movement between the two layers of

-it is secreted by both visceral and parietal serosa
right answer

-Serous fluid decreases the friction produced by the movement of the organs with which it is associated.

131
Q

The cavity between articulating bones at most joints is known as the __________.

A

Synovial cavity

132
Q

Which term best describes the metabolic process of cells making more complex molecules from simpler substances?

A

Anabolism

133
Q

What is in the hypogastric region?

A

Urinary bladder

134
Q

What is kinetic energy?

A

Kinetic energy is energy in action, works by moving objects,

135
Q

What is potential energy?

A

Stored energy that inactive energy, that has potential or capability to do work but is not presently doing so.

136
Q

What is electrical energy

A

Movement of charged particles

137
Q

What is mechanical energy

A

Energy directly involved in moving matter

138
Q

What is chemical energy?

A

Form stormed in bonds of chemical substances

139
Q

What is radiant energy?

A

(electro,age tic radiation) energy that moves in waves. Waves vary in length and are collectively called the electromagnetic spectrum

140
Q

96% of body weight is made up of what four elements?

A

Oxygen,
Carbon,
Hydrogen,
Nitrogen,

141
Q

What is the atomic weight?

A

The average of the mass numbers of all the isotopes of an element.

142
Q

What is the atomic symbol?

A

One- or 2- letter chemical shorthand designed to a chemical

143
Q

What is a solvent?

A

able to dissolve other substances.

144
Q

What is a solute?

A

The substance that is dissolved in a solution.

145
Q

What is a solution?

A

A homogenous mixture of gases, liquids or solids

146
Q

What is a suspension?

A

Heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out.

147
Q

What is a colloid?

A

A mixture in which the solute particles (usually proteins) do not settle out readily.

148
Q

What is a chemical bond?

A

Chemical bonds are energy relationships between the electrons of the reacting atoms

149
Q

What is an a valence shell?

A

The outermost energy shell of an atom

150
Q

What is an ionic bond

A

a chemical bond formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from the valence shell of one atom to that of the other

151
Q

What is a dipole?

A

polar molecule) Nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms.

  • They play essential roles in chemical reactions in body cells.
  • They orient themselves toward other dipole molecules.
152
Q

What is catabolism?

A

Catabolism is the process by which large complex molecules are broken down into smaller, simpler molecules and atoms

153
Q

What is anabolism?

A

Anabolism is the process by which atoms or molecules combine to form larger, more complex molecules.

154
Q

What is decomposition reaction?

A

Chemical reaction in which a molecule is bro- ken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms.

155
Q

What is an exchange reaction?

A

( displacement) Reactions in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms are combined with different atoms.

156
Q

What is an exergonic reaction ?

A

Exergonic reaction- Chemical reaction that releases energy, e.g., a catabolic or oxidative reaction.

157
Q

What is an endergonic reaction ?

A

Endergonic reaction -Chemical reaction that absorbs energy, e.g., an anabolic reaction.

158
Q

What speeds up a chemical reaction?

A

Temperature: higher temp= increases kinetic energy = increases collisions

high concentration of reagents: more particles= more reactions

Particle size: smaller particles move faster than larger ones = more collisions

Catalysts: substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves being chemically changed or part of the product.eg. Enzymes are biological catalysts

159
Q

What is the universal solvent?

A

Water

160
Q

What is hydrolysis?

A

Process in which water is used to split a substance into smaller particles.

161
Q

What are electrolytes?

A

Electrolytes are ions, which are capable of conducting an electrical current.

162
Q

What is ph

A

pH is a concentration unit that specifically measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

163
Q

What are molecular chaperones?

A

Molecular chaperones are enzymes that help proteins fold.

164
Q

What are prostaglandins?

A

Prostaglandins are eicosanoids, which are diverse lipids found in the cell membrane.

A lipid-based chemical messenger synthesized by most tissue cells; acts locally as a paracrine.

165
Q

What are phosolipids?

A

Modified lipid, contains phosphorus.

166
Q

What are steroids?

A

Group of chemical substances including certain hormones and cholesterol; they are fat soluble and contain little oxygen.

167
Q

What does sugar contain?

A

CHO

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

168
Q

What elements to carbohydrates contain?

A

Carbohydrates have CHO with a 1:2:1 ratio

169
Q

What do enzymes do to chemical reactions?

A

Enzymes increase the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy.

170
Q

What do buffers do to ph ?

A

Buffers tend to prevent dramatic changes in pH when proton donors and proton acceptors are added to a solution

171
Q

What are monomers

A

‘Building blocks’

172
Q

What are monomers for proteins

A

Amino acids are the monomers of proteins

173
Q

Which functional group makes one amino acid differ from another?

A

The R groups differ between amino acids

174
Q

The building blocks (monomers) of RNA and DNA are __________.

A

The building blocks (monomers) of RNA and DNA are nucleotides.

175
Q

The important cholesterol-based molecules are __________.

A

Steroids are the important molecules made from cholesterol.

176
Q

The sequence of amino acids in a protein constitutes the __________ structure of the protein.

A

The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.

177
Q

What are primary structures?

A

The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.

-

178
Q

What are secondary structures?

A

The linear chains of amino acids twisted and bent to form spirals ( alpha helix) and beta sheets

179
Q

What are tertiary structures?

A

Super imposed on secondary structure. Helixes and sheets are folded up to form globular molecule held together by intramolecular bonds.

180
Q

What are quaternary structures?

A

When 2 or more polypeptide chains aggregate in a regular manner to form a complex protein.

181
Q

What is energy?

A

Capacity to do work or put matter into motion. The greater the work done, the more energy is used doing it.

182
Q

What are the forms of energy?

A

Chemical, electrical, Mechanical and radiant

183
Q

T or f, energy can be converted

A

True

184
Q

Difference between molecules and compounds?

A

Molecules- same elements combined

Compounds- different element atoms combined

185
Q

What is a mixture?

A

Substances composed of 2 or more components physically intermixed. 3 basic types: solutions, colloids and suspensions

186
Q

How to distinguish mixtures from compounds?

A

1) no chemical bonding between components of a mixture
2) in a mixture components can be separated by physical means. compounds can only be separated into atoms by chemically breaking bonds
3) all componds are heterogeneous, with mixtures some are heterogeneous and some are homo

187
Q

What is a chemical reaction?

A

When chemical bonds are formed, rearranged or broken

188
Q

What is a reactant and a product?

A

Reactant- no. And kinds of interacting substances

Product- chemical composition of the result of the reaction

189
Q

What are the 4 types of reactions?

A

1 ) synthesis- atoms combine to form larger complex molecules

2) decomposition reaction- molecule broken down to smaller less complex ones
3) exchange/ displacement-involve both synthesis and decomposition bonds being made and broken. Parts of reactants change partners, producing different molecules.

190
Q

What is a chemical equilibrium?

A

A state of apparent repose created by two

reactions proceeding in opposite directions at equal speed.

191
Q

What is biochemistry?

A

Study of chemical composition and reactions of living matter

192
Q

What are organic compounds?

A

Contain carbon. All organic compounds are covalently bonded molecules.

193
Q

What are inorganic compounds?

A

All chemicals in the body not organic compounds Eg. Water, salts, other acids and bases

194
Q

What are the properties of water?

A

1) high heat capacity
2) high heat of vaporisation
3) polar solvent properties
4) reactivity
5) cushioning

195
Q

Discuss waters high heat capacity?

A
  • It absorbs and releases large amounts of heat before changing appreciably in temperature itself.
  • prevents sudden temp changes caused by external factors
  • as part of blood redistributes heat among body tissues ensuring temp homeostasis
196
Q

Discuss waters high heat of vaporisation?

A
  • water change from heat to gas requires heat to be absorbed to break hydrogen bonds that hold molecules together
197
Q

Discuss waters polar solvent properties?

A
  • water is a solvent often called ‘ universal solvent . Molecules being polar (slightly negative ends towards positive ends of solute, attracting solutes and surrounding them)
  • water forms hydration layers around large complex molecules shielding them from other charged molecules around
198
Q

Discuss waters reactivity?

A

Water is an important reactant in many chemical reactions

199
Q

Discuss waters cushioning ability?

A

By forming a resilient cushion around certain body organs, water helps protect them from physical trauma

200
Q

What is a salt?

A

Ionic co pound containing cations other than H+ and anions other than Hydroxyl ion OH-. When salts dissolve in water, they dissociate into their components ions. All ions are electolytes// substances that conduct an electrical current in solution.

201
Q

What salts are commonly found in the body?

A

NaCl, CaCO3 calcium carbonate, KCl potassium chloride

202
Q

What is an acid?

A

A substance that releases hydrogen ions in delectable amounts. Because a hydrogen nucleus or a ‘naked’ proton p, acids are also defined as proton donors.

203
Q

What are proton donors?

A

A substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; an acid.

204
Q

What are bases?

A

A substance capable of binding with hydrogen ions in delectable amounts; a proton acceptor.

205
Q

What is bicarbonate ion?

A

HCO3-

An important base in the body and particularly abundant in blood

206
Q

What is ammonia?

A

A common water product of a protein breakdown in the body, is also a base.

207
Q

The greater the concentration of hydroxyl ions ( means less free hydrogens) the more______ the solution is?

A

Alkaline

208
Q

The more hydrogen ions in a solution the more ______ the solution is?

A

Acidic

209
Q

pH less than 7 means…?

A

ACIDIC

210
Q

PH more than 7 means….?

A

ALKALINE

211
Q

What is neutralisation?

A
  • Happens when acids and bases are mixed.

- when acid and base mix they react with each other in displacement reactions to form water and salt.

212
Q

What are carbohydrates

A

Group of molecules that include sugars and starches. Represent 1-2% of cells

213
Q

What are the classifications if carbohydrates ( according to size and solubility)

A

Monosaccharides ( one sugar)
Disaccharide ( 2 sugars)
Polysaccharide ( many sugars)

214
Q

What are monosaccharides?

A

simple sugars. Single chain or single ring structures containing 3 to 7 carbon atoms usually carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the ratio 1:2:1

Eg. Glucose, fructose

215
Q

What are disaccharides?

A

double sugar, formed when 2 monosaccharides are joined by dehydration synthesis. A synthesis reaction where water molecule is lost as the bond is made.
They are too large to go through cell membrane and must be digested via hydrolysis to simple sugar units to be absorbed into blood from digestive tract.

Eg. Sucrose ( glucose+ fructose) , lactose ( glucose+ galactose)

216
Q

What are polysaccharides?

A

Polymers of simple sugars linked together by dehydration synthesis.
- large, fairly insolvable so ideal storage units for products

Eg. Starch and glycogen

217
Q

What are polymers of glucose?

A

Starch and glycogen

218
Q

What are polymers

A

A substance of high molecular weight with long, chainlike mol- ecules consisting of many similar (repeated) units.

219
Q

What is glycogen?

A

Storage of carbohydrates of animal tissues. Stored primarily in skeletal muscle and liver cells.

220
Q

What is starch?

A

Storage of carbohydrates formed by plants.

221
Q

What is the carbohydrates function?

A
  • to provide ready, easily used source of cellular fuel.
  • glucose is at top of the cellular menu
  • glucose is broken down and oxidised within cells and during these reactions electrons are transferred releasing bond energy stored in glucose. This energy synthesises ATP and when ATP supplies are sufficient dietary carbohydrates are converted to glycogen or fat and stored
222
Q

What are lipids?

A

Organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; examples are fats and cholesterol.( 02 in lipids is much lower compared to carbohydrates tho+ in some complex lipids phosphorus orus is found)

  • Insoluble in water but dissolve readily In other lipids and in organic solvents such as alcohol and ether
223
Q

What are types of lipids?

A

triglycerides
Phospholipids
And a no. Of others

224
Q

What are proteins?

A

Organic compound composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; types include enzymes, structural components; 10–30% of cell mass.

225
Q

T of f proteins are macromolecules?

A

True

226
Q

What are the 4 structural levels of proteins

A

Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Quaternary

227
Q

Structure of protein determines its biological_______

A

Function

228
Q

What are fibrous proteins/ structural proteins?

A

Consist of extended, strandlike polypep- tide chains forming a strong, ropelike structure that is linear, insoluble in water, and very stable

Eg. collagen, keratin, elastin and certain contractile proteins of muscle

229
Q

What are globular proteins/ functional proteins?

A

Compact spherical proteins that have at least tertiary structure, Some quaternary. Are water soluble and chemically active

230
Q

Discuss protein denaturation?

A
  • structural proteins are stable but globular are not.
  • when ph drops or temp rises above norm causing proteins to unfold and loose their specific 3 dimensional shape they are denatured
231
Q

What is a cofactor

A

Metal ion or organic molecule that is required for enzyme activity.

Functional / globular proteins have them.

232
Q

What is an active site?

A

Region on the surface of a functional (globular) protein where
it binds and interacts chemically with other molecules of complementary shape and charge. Where catalytic activity occurs.

233
Q

What is the activation energy?

A

Amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to occur or to push a reactant to the level necessary for action.

234
Q

3 steps to enzyme action?

A

1) substrate/s bind to enzymes active site, temporarily forming an enzyme substrate complex
2) enzyme substrate complex undergoes internal rearrangement that forms the product/s
3) the enzyme releases the products of the reaction

235
Q

What is atp and what does it do?

A 
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - Organic molecule that stores and releases chemical energy for use in body cells.
- comes from glucose catabolism
236
Q

What is a substrate?

A

A reactant on which an enzyme acts to cause a chemical action to proceed.

NUR111 (6 decks)

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