TOPIC 5 Flashcards
rock particles (function)
provides the SKELETON of the soil; derived from the underlying rock/rock particles transported to the environment
Increased sustainability of food production (list of 3)
-CLEAN UP AND RESTORATION (planting of buffer zones around land suitable for food production to ABSORB nutrient runoff)
-CONTROLLING RELEASE (monitoring and control of standards and practices of multi-national and national food corporations by governmental and intergovernmental bodies)
-ALTERING HUMAN ACTIVITY (reduce meat consumption; increase consumption of organically grown and locally-produced terrestrial foods, improving the accuracy of food labels to assist in consumer choice)
ways to measure efficiency of a farming system
-energy contained within the crop of harvested product per ara unit
Transformations in soil (list 3)
-decomposition
-weathering
-nutrient cycling
structure and properties of sand soils
-widest particle diameter
-gritty
-falls apart easily
-ensures good drainage and air supply to roots
-low biota and primary productivity
-high mineral content
horticulture and dairying
-example location: Western Netherlands
-farming type: intensive; commercial
-inputs: HIGH labour and technology
-outputs: HIGH per hectare and per farmer
-efficiency: high
-environmental impact: HIGH – greenhouses for salads and flowers are heated and lit ; in dairying, grass is fertilised, cows produced waste
transfers in soil systems
- directly affected by atmospheric process
- amounts of heat, evaporation, precipitation –> DETERMINE main movements of water in soil
- transfers of material (including deposition) result in reorganisation of the soil
pesticides (3 types)
-herbicides
-fungicides
-insecticides
food miles
-distance that food products travel from point of production to consumer
hydroponics
-growing plants in a soil-less medium (e.g., gravel) with nutrient solutions
-controlled environment
-water-efficient
-can be used in urban settings
-e.g., Gigafarm, Dubai (also a vertical farm exmaple)
DELETE transformations in soil systems
- decomposition
- weathering
- nutrient cycling
- humification
- degradation
- mineralisation
- illuviation
permaculture
-agricultural and social design principles SIMULATING natural ecosystems
-sustainable and self-sufficient
-integrates plants, animals, AND human communities
-e.g., used to successfully combat malnutrition in Malawi
inequalities in food production systems
-steady increase in world food prices since early 2000s –> rise of food outpaces production –> contributed to inequalities in food availability and affordability
-shift from grain-based diets to meat- and dairy-based diets as incomes rise –> requires more resources and has higher environmental impact
-higher oil prices leads to increased cost of transportation –> affects availability/affordability of food in remote and underpriveleged regions
-subsidies and tariffs from government policies and trade agreements
Factors that influence sustainability of terrestrial food production (list of 13)
-scale
-industrialisation
-mechanisation
-fossil fuel use
-seed
-crop and livestock changes
-water use
-fertilisers
-pest control
-pollinators
-antibiotics
-legislation
-levels of commercial vs. subsistence food production
nomadic food production system
-farmers move seasonally with herds
-e.g., Pokot pastoralists, Kenya
classes of terrestrial food production systems
-arable vs pastoral
-commercial vs subsistence
-intensive vs extensive
-nomadic vs sedentary
Transfers in soil (list of 2)
-biological mixing
-leaching
the soil of tropical rainforests
-very infertile due to high temps and rainfall, which produce weathered, leached soils lacking in nutrients
Biodynamic farming
-organic farming with spiritual and mystical perspectives
emphasises:
-crop diversity
-composting
-use of herbal/mineral preparations
-e.g., Scribe Biodynamic Winery, USA
food waste in MEDCs (list of 2)
-regulatory standards which require food to be DISCARDED by expiry dates
-over-purchasing and overselling (multi-packs)
Shelter belts (definition)
Woodflands planted along the margins of fields
Wind breaks (list 2)
-planting trees
-using rock lines
sedentary food production systems
-farmers remain in the same place throughout the year
-e.g., rice farmers in South-East Aisa
Inputs to soil system (list of 4)
-leaf litter
-inorganic matter from parent material
-precipitation
-energy
Soil conservation measures (list of 4)
-soil conditioners (organic materials and lime)
-wind reduction techniques (wind breaks and shelter belts)
-cultivation techniques (terracing, contour ploughing, striping cultivation)
-avoiding use of marginal lands
B horizon
-subsurface horizon
-below A horizon
-holds more water than A horizon
-contains less humus, soluble materials, organic matter
-site of mineral and metal salt deposition
contrasting food production systems
consider similarities and differences between:
-inputs (human, natural, labour, mechanical)
-outputs (quantity/quality, pollutants, chemicals, emissions)
system characteristics (e.g., selective breeding, genetic engineering, mono- vs poly-culture, sustainability, indigenous vs introduced crops)
-sociocultural (socio-cultural reasons/signififance of farming; farming for subsistence vs profit; local consumption vs export; quality or quantity)
-environmental impact (pollution, habitat loss, reduction in biodiversity, soil erosion)
green revolution
-third agricultural revolution
-period of technology transfer initiative that resulted in greatly increased crop yields
-began early 1900s in MEDCs and spread globally until the late 1980s
organic farming
-farming without synthetic chemicals
-focuses on sustainable practices
uses:
-natural fertilisers
-crop rotation
-composting
-biological pest control
-eg. Moonlake Investment Dairy Farms, Tasmania
DELETE storages in soil systems
- organic matter
- organisms
- nutrients
- minerals
- air
- water
cropping techniques for managing soil degradation
-prevents erosion through
-maintaining crop cover for as long as possible
-keeping stubble and root structure of crop after harvesting
-planting a grass crop (roots bind the soil, MINIMISING wind and rain effect on bare surface –> increased organic content allows soil to hold more water, preventing aerial erosion and stabilising soil structure)
reason for limiting ploughing of marginal areas
doing so leaves it bare and vulnerable to increased soil erosion
fertilisers (3 types)
-nitrogen-based
-phosphorus-based
-potassium-based
aquaculture
-farming of aquatic organisms such as fish and plants
-can be freshwater or marine
-includes fish-farming and oyster farming
-e.g., shrimp farming in Thailand
Leaching
Minerals dissolved in water moving down through soil
outputs of food production systems
-food quantity and quality
-pollutants (nitrates, fertilisers)
-chemicals from pesticides and herbicides
-emissions from machinery
-seeds
-animals for breeding
Soil texture triangle
Diagram to compare the composition of soil with sand, clay, and loam percentages identified
precision farming
-management concept based on field variability in crops
-uses technologies (eg GPS, sensors, data analytics) to optimise field-level management
-e.g., American Midwest
Outputs from soil system (list of 2)
-Uptake by plants
-Soil erosion
Properties of soil (list of 7)
-mineral and nutrient content
-drainage
-water holding capacity
-air spaces
-biota
-potential to hold organic matter
-primary productivity
What is causing per capita land for food production to decrease?
-urbanisation
-degradation of soil resources
-growing populations
humification, degradation, mineralisation
process where ORGANIC MATTER breaks down –> nutrients are returned to the soil
- breakdown releases organic acids (chelating agents) –> break down clay into SILICA, SOLUBLE IRON, ALUMINIUM
A horizon
-humus
-the topsoil
-composed of organic matter and other decomposed materials
-where seed germination takes place/new roots are produced8
soil degradation management techniques
-encouraging farmers towards extensive management practices
-methods are MECHANICAL (inc physical barriers) or VEGETATION COVER AND SOIL HUSBANDRY
Arable food production
-the cultivation of crops
-e.g., corn belt in USA
structure and properties of clay soils (8)
-narrowest particle diameter
-sticky; can be rolled up in a ball easily
-high water retention capacity
-poor drainage
-low biota
-high mineral content
-quite low primary productivity
-high acidity
-provides nutrients to plants
Physical weathering (definition and examples)
Involves the mechanical breakdown of pieces of rock into small pieces
-e.g., frost, salt, insolation, biological weathering
Soil profile
The layers (horizons) seen in a vertical cut through soil
C horizon
-deprived of any organic matter
-made up of broken bedrock
-geological material present is cemented
mechanical methods for soil degradation management
-includes:
bunding; terracing; countour ploughing; shelterbelts
-goal is to PREVENT or SLOW the movement of RAINWATER downslope
-shelterbelts protects against WIND EROSION
Soil system storages (list of 6)
-organic matter
-organisms
-nutrients
-minerals
-air
-water
O horizon
-organic horizon
-mostly organic matter such as decomposing leaves
-upper layer of topsoil
What causes reduced soil fertility? (list of 4)
-soil erosion
-toxification
-salination
-dersertification
agroforestry
-growing trees or shrubs aorund or among crops or pastureland
-combines agriculture and forestry
-improves biodiversity
-reduces erosion
-e.g., Quesungual Slash and Mulch Agroforestry System in Lempira Department, Honduras
Strip cultivation
Planting alternating crops in a field to reduce nutrient depletion and the chance of pests
structure and properties of loam soils
-ideal for agriculture
-a (fairly) equal combination of each soil type
-sand ensures good drainage, clay retains water and provides nutrients, and silt holds sand and clay particles together so they can be worked with easily
-intermediate mineral content
-intermediate potential to hold organic matter
-good drainage
-intermediate water holding capacity
-intermediate air spaces
-high biota
-high primary productivity
rice growing
-example location: Ganges Valley
type of farming: intensive; subsistence
-inputs: HIGH labour, LOW technology
-outputs: HIGH per hectare, LOW per farmer
-efficiency: high
environmental impact: low –> padi rice has a POLYCULTURE stocked with fish; also grow other crops
types of soil degradation
-erosion (by wind and water)
-biological degradation (loss of humus and plant/animal life)
-physical degradation (loss of structure and changes in permeability)
-chemical degradation (acidification, declining fertility, changes in pH, salinisation, chemical toxicity)
no-plough cultivation
Replanting through stubble of old crop
Terracing
Creating terraces (shelves) that step down/up the land with walls to support the soil from slipping
erosion
-caused by wind and water
-many types in
cereal growing
-example location: canadian prairies
-type of farming: extensive; commerical
-inputs: high use of technology and fertilisers
-outputs: LOW per hectare but HIGH per farmer
-efficiency: medium
environmental impact: HIGH - loss of natural ecosystems, soil erosion, loss of biodiversity
Human activities that reduce soil fertility (list of 4)
-deforestation
-intensive grazing
-urbanisation
-certain agricultural practices such as IRRIGATION and MONOCULTURES
Benefits of harvesting lower trophic levels (list 4)
-provides greater yield per unit area
-greater in quantity
-lower in cost
-may require fewer resources
Parent material (definition)
The rock from which soil forms locally
Soil conditioners (definition + examples)
Organic materials used to increase the pH of soil
-e.g., manure, mulches, lime (calcium carbonate)
illuviation
-redeposition of material in the lower horizons
-creates ‘striping’/strata
structure and properties of silt soils
-slippery
-hold together better than sandy soils
-medium sized particles
-easily compacted
-holds more moisture than sandy soils
-fertile
-fairly well drained
Contour ploughing
Follows the contours of the land when ploughing to AVOID soil washing down hill
DELETE inputs in soil systems
- organic and parent material
- precipitation
- infiltration
- energy
relationship between soil ecosystem succession and soil fertility
Soil ecosystems mature through the process of succession.
- Fertile soils need significant time to develop through the process of succession (approx. 3000 years)
- Soil in early succession is less fertile and may lack the nutrients needed in order to help make plants grow.
- As succession progresses, soil increases in fertility.
Chemical weathering (Definition and types of weathering)
Breaks down chemical bonds, CHEMICALLY modifies the rock minerals and PRODUCES NEW COMPOUNDS
-the most common types of types are: oxidation, carbonation, hydrolysis, lichen
inputs of food production system (11)
-fertilisers (artificial and organic)
-irrigation
-water
-rainfall
-pesticides (artificial and natural)
-fossil fuels
-food distribution
-human labour and mechanisation
-seeds (GMO and traditional)
-breeding stock (domestic and wild)
-hormones
management of salt-affected soil
-flushing soil and leaching salt away
-application of chemicals (e.g., calcium sulfate) to REPLACE sodium ions in the clay
-REDUCTION up evaporation losses to REDUCE upward movement of water in soil
agro-industrialisation
large-scale, intensive, high-input, high-output, commercial nature of much of modern farming
shifting cultivation
example location: Amazon rainforest
outputs in soil systems
- leaching
- uptake by plants
- mass movement
Stubble
The dead lower stem and roots of a harvested crop that remain in the land, holding the soil in place
Subsistence food production
-products are consumed by cultivators/grown for local consumption
-small-scale
-low technology
-labor intensive
-diversified crops
-e.g., shifting cultivation by Kayapo people of Amazon rainforest
conventional farming
-traditional farming with synthetic chemical inputs and monoculture
-high yields
-reliance on chemical fertilisers and pesticides
-often involves GMOs
e.g., Western Australia wheat belt region, Australia
Commercial food production
-products are sold to make a profit
-large-scale
-high-technology
-mono-cropping/monocultures
-mechanised
-profit driven
-.e.g., market gardening in Netherlands
extensive food production systems
-uses larger areas of land
-low inputs or yields per unit area
0low yield per hectare BUT larger overall production due to large land area
-e.g., reindeer herding in Siberia
influences on the sustainablility of food production systems
-scale of farming
-industrialisation
-mechanisation
-fossil fuel use
-seed/crop/livestock choices
-water use
-fertilisers, pest control
-antibiotics
-legislation
-pollinators
-commercial vs subsitence food production
Higher trophic levels (in relation to harvesting)
Harvesting from these may be a cultural choice
intensive food production system
-high inputs or yields per unit area
-aims to maximise productivity
-high input of: labor; fertilisers; pesticides; technology
-e.g., cattle feed lots in California
main components of soil and where they originate
FOUR components
-mineral particles (from underlying rock)
-organic remains (from plants and animals)
-water (within spaces between soil grains)
-air (within soil grains)
Fertile soils
These require SIGNIFICANT TIME to develop through SUCCESSION and are considered a NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCE
effect of addition of lime in conservation of soil
increases pH, counteracting soil acidifcation
desertification
-process: vegetation in dry lands (arid and semi-arid) decrease and eventually disappear
Causes of food waste in LEDCs (list of 5)
-lack of refrigeration
-transport infrastructure
-knowledge of markets
-communication
-information availability
types of rock particles (4; 6)
-insoluble:
* gravel
* sand
* silt
* clay
soluble:
* mineral salts
* compounds of nitrogen
* phosphorus
* potassium
* sulphur
* magnesium
Pastoral food production
-rearing of animals
-e.g., Masaii herdsmen of Kenya
R horizon
-below C horizon
-compacted and cemented layer
-different rocks (granite, basalt, limestone) are present
vertical farming
-growing crops in vertically stacked layers or structures
-controlled evnironment technology
-often hydroponics or aeroponics
-maximises space, particularly in urban areas
-e.g., Gigafarm, Dubai (also a hydroponics example)
Choice of food production system (list of 5)
Influenced by the following factors:
-socioeconomic
-cultural
-ecological
-political
-economic
