topic 4 Flashcards
1
Q
What is reinforcement in psychology?
A
Reinforcement is the process in which a behavior is strengthened by the immediate consequence that reliably follows its occurrence.
Strengthened behavior is more likely to occur again in the future.
2
Q
What are two key concepts associated with reinforcement?
A
- Thorndike’s Law of Effect – Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by discomfort are less likely to be repeated.
- Skinner’s Operant Boxes – Experiments conducted by B.F. Skinner to study how reinforcement and punishment shape behavior.
3
Q
What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
A
Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that if a response to a stimulus is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the association between the stimulus and response will be strengthened.
Satisfaction → Behavior is “stamped in” (reinforced).
Discomfort → Behavior is “stamped out” (weakened).
4
Q
How does the Law of Effect explain behavior changes?
A
If a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to a satisfying event, the association between the stimulus and response is strengthened.
If a response is followed by an annoying event, the association is weakened.
This explains why certain behaviors become more frequent while others diminish over time.
5
Q
What did Thorndike’s early investigations focus on?
A
Thorndike conducted experiments using puzzle boxes where animals (typically cats) had to perform specific behaviors to escape.
His findings showed that responses that led to desirable outcomes were repeated more quickly over time.
He recorded escape times, showing a learning curve where animals became faster at solving the task.
6
Q
What are reinforcement contingencies?
A
Reinforcement contingencies describe how behavior is influenced by consequences. They are divided into:
- Positive Reinforcement – Adding a stimulus to increase behavior.
- Negative Reinforcement – Removing a stimulus to increase behavior.
- Positive Punishment – Adding a stimulus to decrease behavior.
- Negative Punishment – Removing a stimulus to decrease behavior.
7
Q
What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?
A
Reinforcement increases the frequency of desirable behavior.
Punishment decreases the frequency of undesirable behavior.
Positive means adding a stimulus, while negative means removing a stimulus.
8
Q
What is positive reinforcement? Give an example.
A
Definition: Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant stimulus after a behavior to increase its occurrence.
Example: Giving a child candy for completing homework encourages them to do it again.
9
Q
What is negative reinforcement? Give an example.
A
Definition: Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
Example: Taking painkillers to relieve a headache reinforces the use of painkillers in the future.
10
Q
What is positive punishment? Give an example.
A
Definition: Positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Example: A teacher scolding a student for talking in class to reduce the behavior.
11
Q
What is negative punishment? Give an example.
A
Definition: Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Example: Taking away a child’s video game privileges for misbehaving.
12
Q
What is the Three-Term Contingency in behaviorism?
A
The Three-Term Contingency (ABC Model) explains behavior in three parts:
- A (Antecedent) – The stimulus that triggers the behavior.
- B (Behavior) – The response to the stimulus.
- C (Consequence) – The result of the behavior, which influences future behavior.
13
Q
How does the Three-Term Contingency (ABC Model) work in real life?
A
Example:
Antecedent: A teacher asks a question.
Behavior: A student raises their hand to answer.
Consequence: The teacher praises the student, increasing the likelihood they will participate again.
14
Q
How do reinforcement and punishment fit into the ABC Model?
A
Reinforcement (positive or negative) strengthens behavior by increasing its likelihood.
Punishment (positive or negative) weakens behavior by decreasing its likelihood.
The consequence (C) determines if the behavior (B) will be repeated when the antecedent (A) occurs again.
15
Q
How do we determine if a behavior has been strengthened?
A
A behavior is considered strengthened if we observe any of the following:
Increase in frequency (occurs more often).
Increase in duration (lasts longer).
Increase in intensity (performed with more force or effort).
Increase in speed (faster execution, with a decrease in latency).
16
Q
What does an increase in frequency indicate about behavior?
A
An increase in frequency means the behavior is happening more often, suggesting that reinforcement is working.
Example:
A student raises their hand in class more frequently after receiving praise from the teacher.
17
Q
What does an increase in duration indicate about behavior?
A
An increase in duration means the behavior is being sustained for longer periods, showing reinforcement has strengthened it.
Example:
A child practices the piano for longer periods after receiving positive feedback from their instructor.
18
Q
What does an increase in intensity indicate about behavior?
A
An increase in intensity means the behavior is performed with more force, effort, or enthusiasm.
Example:
A worker speaks more confidently during presentations after receiving compliments from colleagues.
19
Q
What does an increase in speed (decrease in latency) indicate about behavior?
A
A decrease in latency means the time between the stimulus and response is shorter, meaning the behavior occurs more quickly.
Example:
A child begins cleaning their room faster after being rewarded with extra screen time.
20
Q
What is operant behavior?
A
Operant behavior is a behavior that is strengthened through the process of reinforcement.
Also known as operant response or instrumental behavior.
It acts on the environment to produce a consequence.
If a consequence strengthens the behavior, it is called a reinforcer.
21
Q
How does operant behavior influence the environment?
A
Operant behavior acts on the environment to produce consequences, which can either strengthen or weaken the behavior based on reinforcement or punishment.
22
Q
What determines if a consequence is a reinforcer?
A
A consequence (stimulus or event) is a reinforcer if it strengthens the operant behavior, increasing its likelihood of occurring again.
23
Q
What is operant learning?
A
Operant learning is a change in behavior as a function of the consequences that followed it.
Positive consequences increase behavior.
Negative consequences decrease behavior.
24
Q
What is reinforcement in behaviorism?
A
Reinforcement is the process by which a behavior is strengthened due to its immediate consequence (a reinforcer), making it more likely to occur again in the future.
25
What are the three key components of reinforcement?
1. Occurrence of a Behavior (Response) – An action is performed.
2. Immediate Consequence (Reinforcer) – A stimulus is applied or removed following the behavior.
3. Outcome – The behavior is strengthened and more likely to happen again.
26
Why is the timing of reinforcement important?
Reinforcement must occur immediately after the behavior for the association to be strong. Delayed reinforcement may weaken the connection between behavior and consequence.
27
How does reinforcement strengthen behavior?
A behavior is strengthened when a reinforcer is presented immediately after it occurs. This reinforcement increases the probability of the behavior happening again in similar situations.
28
What are the two main effects of consequences on behavior?
Consequences can either:
1. Reinforce a behavior (increase its occurrence).
2. Punish a behavior (decrease its occurrence).
29
What is reinforcement?
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future.
Can be positive reinforcement (adding a stimulus) or negative reinforcement (removing a stimulus).
30
What is punishment?
Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future.
Can be positive punishment (adding a stimulus) or negative punishment (removing a stimulus).
31
How do reinforcement and punishment shape behavior?
Reinforcement strengthens behavior by providing favorable consequences.
Punishment weakens behavior by providing unfavorable consequences.
Both are used in behavior modification and learning.
32
What are the two types of reinforcement?
1. Positive Reinforcement – Adding a stimulus to increase behavior.
2. Negative Reinforcement – Removing a stimulus to increase behavior.
🔹 Both strengthen behavior, making it more likely to occur again in the future.
33
What is positive reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior leads to the addition of an appetitive stimulus, strengthening the likelihood of that behavior happening again.
Example:
A teacher gives a student praise for completing homework, increasing the likelihood they will do it again.
34
What is negative reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior leads to the removal or prevention of an aversive stimulus, strengthening the likelihood of that behavior happening again.
Example:
Taking painkillers to relieve a headache increases the likelihood of using painkillers in the future when experiencing pain.
35
Does negative reinforcement mean punishment?
No! Negative reinforcement is not punishment.
Negative reinforcement increases behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus.
Punishment decreases behavior by adding or removing a stimulus.
36
What is escape behavior in operant conditioning?
Escape behavior occurs when an operant behavior increases because it removes an ongoing aversive stimulus.
Example:
Pressing a lever to stop an electric shock.
37
What is avoidance behavior in operant conditioning?
Avoidance behavior occurs when an operant behavior increases because it prevents the onset of an aversive stimulus.
Example:
Pressing a lever to prevent an electric shock.
38
What is the key difference between escape and avoidance behavior?
Escape behavior removes an aversive stimulus after it starts.
Avoidance behavior prevents an aversive stimulus before it starts.
39
Is reinforcement a theory?
No. Reinforcement is not a theory; it is a functional description of how consequences affect behavior.
40
Why is reinforcement not circular reasoning?
Reinforcement is not circular because it describes a functional relationship between behavior and its consequences.
Incorrect Usage:
"Food increased the probability of lever pressing because it was reinforcing." (Circular)
Correct Usage:
"Food functioned as a reinforcer for lever pressing."
"Food reinforced the response of lever pressing."
41
What determines the explanatory power of reinforcement?
The explanatory power of reinforcement comes from discovering:
1. Which stimuli will function as a reinforcer.
2. The conditions that allow a stimulus to have a reinforcing function.
42
How is the phrase “increase the probability of” commonly simplified in reinforcement terminology?
“Increase the probability of” is often shortened to “strengthened” when describing reinforcement effects on behavior.
43
What is a Discrete Trial Procedure in operant conditioning?
A Discrete Trial Procedure is a type of operant conditioning where:
The instrumental response is produced once per trial.
Each trial ends with the removal of the subject from the apparatus.
Used in studies like maze learning to measure behavior.
44
What are common types of Discrete Trial Procedures?
1. Runway Maze
Measures running speed and latency to reach a goal.
Example: A rat running towards food at the end of a corridor.
2. T-Maze
Measures correct choices made in a decision task.
Example: A rat choosing the correct path in a T-shaped maze for a reward.
45
What is a Free-Operant Procedure in operant conditioning?
A Free-Operant Procedure allows an animal to:
Remain in the apparatus for extended periods.
Make multiple responses without intervention.
Developed by B.F. Skinner using the Skinner Box.
Example: A rat pressing a lever to receive food continuously.
46
What are examples of Free-Operant Procedures in animal studies?
1. Rats:
Trained in a Skinner Box to press a lever for food.
2. Pigeons:
Pecks at a key in response to a stimulus.
3. Chickadees:
Used in experiments related to memory and foraging.
47
What is the main difference between Discrete Trial and Free-Operant Procedures?
Discrete Trial Procedure → One response per trial, subject is removed after.
Free-Operant Procedure → Multiple responses, continuous behavior allowed.
48
What are the three key components of reinforcement?
1. Occurrence of a behavior (response)
2. Immediate consequence: Reinforcer
3. Outcome: Strengthens the behavior (makes it more likely to occur again in the future).
49
What are the two effects of consequences in behavior?
1. Reinforcement → Increases behavior
2. Punishment → Decreases behavior
50
What are the two types of reinforcement and how do they differ?
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to strengthen a behavior (e.g., giving a treat).
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to strengthen a behavior (e.g., turning off an alarm by waking up).
Note: Negative reinforcement is NOT the same as punishment.
51
What is the difference between escape behavior and avoidance behavior?
Escape behavior: The response removes an ongoing stimulus (e.g., pressing a lever to stop an electric shock).
Avoidance behavior: The response prevents the stimulus from occurring (e.g., pressing a lever before the shock starts).
52
What are some things to keep in mind about reinforcement?
Reinforcement is not a theory but a functional description of behavior.
It is not circular (avoid saying "because it was reinforcing").
Proper terminology: "The consequence functioned as a reinforcer for the response."
53
What is a discrete trial procedure?
A single response per trial in a controlled setting.
Each trial ends with removal of the subject (e.g., an animal in an experiment).
Example: A rat running down a runway maze to obtain a food reward.
54
What three measures are used in discrete trial procedures?
Running speed – How fast the subject moves.
Latency – The delay before the response occurs.
Correct choices – Decision-making accuracy in tasks like T-mazes.
55
What is the free-operant procedure, and who developed it?
A method where an animal can respond freely and repeatedly without intervention.
Developed by B.F. Skinner.
Examples:
Rats pressing a lever in a Skinner box.
Pigeons pecking at a key for food rewards.
56
What is a cumulative record?
A continuous graph of responses over time, recorded by a device.
Developed in 1957 using a cumulative recorder with a moving pen that jumps with each response.
57
How do you interpret a cumulative record graph?
1. Flat line: No responses (period of no responding).
2. Steady upward slope: Consistent responding over time.
3. Steep slope: High rate of responding.
4. Pen reset: Indicates a new recording session or limit reached on the graph.
58
What is the difference between frequency and cumulative frequency?
Frequency refers to the number of occurrences of a behavior at a specific time point. It fluctuates up and down over time.
Cumulative frequency is the total number of occurrences accumulated over time. It only increases or stays constant.
59
What do the two graphs represent in the "Frequency vs. Cumulative Frequency" slide?
Top graph (blue dots): Shows individual frequency counts at different time points. The data fluctuates.
Bottom graph (orange dots): Shows cumulative frequency, which steadily increases over time.
60
How is cumulative frequency calculated
Cumulative frequency is calculated by adding each new frequency value to the previous cumulative total.
Example from table:
Time 3: Frequency = 1 → Cumulative =1
Time 4: Frequency = 1 → Cumulative =2
Time 5: Frequency = 2 → Cumulative =4
61
What does the slope represent in frequency vs. cumulative frequency graphs?
Slope in the frequency graph shows the rate of behavior change at specific time points.
Slope in the cumulative frequency graph represents the overall trend of behavior increase over time. A steeper slope means a higher rate of responding.
62
What do the slope values (0.15 vs. 1.30) and R² values (0.26 vs. 0.96) indicate?
Slope = 0.15, R² = 0.26 (left graph, frequency graph):
A low slope means a slower rate of behavior change.
The R² value (0.26) shows the trend is not a strong fit to the linear model.
Slope = 1.30, R² = 0.96 (right graph, cumulative frequency graph):
A higher slope means faster behavior accumulation.
The R² value (0.96) indicates a strong fit to the trend line.
63
What are the main takeaways from the frequency vs. cumulative frequency comparison?
1. Frequency graphs fluctuate, showing moment-to-moment behavior variations.
2. Cumulative frequency graphs steadily rise—they never decrease.
3. Higher slope in cumulative frequency means a higher rate of responding over time.
4. R² value tells us how well a trend line fits the data—higher R² means a better fit.
64
What is an Unconditional (Primary) Reinforcer?
A reinforcer that gains its reinforcing properties as a function of evolutionary history.
It is an essential part of species survival and reproduction.
65
What is the significance of Unconditional (Primary) Reinforcers in evolutionary history?
These reinforcers are biologically important because they are related to survival and reproduction.
They are inherently reinforcing due to their evolutionary role.
66
What are some examples of Unconditional (Primary) Reinforcers?
Food: Necessary for survival and energy.
Sex: Key for reproduction and species continuation.
Water: Essential for hydration and life.
Sleep: Needed for health, mental clarity, and functioning.
Social interaction: Important for forming bonds and communities.
Escape from harmful stimuli: Such as extreme heat, pain, or danger.
67
How does deprivation affect Unconditional (Primary) Reinforcers?
These reinforcers are usually more potent when the organism is deprived of them.
For example, the hunger drive makes food more reinforcing.
Thirst increases the value of water as a reinforcer.
68
Are Unconditional (Primary) Reinforcers species-specific?
Yes, species-specific: what is considered a primary reinforcer can vary between species.
For example, water is a primary reinforcer for all animals.
However, specific types of food may be unique to certain species.
69
What was the goal of the Liberman et al. (1973) study?
The goal was to differentiate between two incompatible sets of behavior:
Rational talk: Logical and coherent speech.
Irrational talk: Nonsensical or delusional speech.
The study examined how reinforcement could modify these behaviors.
70
Who were the participants in the Liberman et al. (1973) study?
The study involved four participants:
Jane V.
Herman D.
Jack E.
Mary N.
These individuals were observed over a 30-day period.
71
How was the data collected in the Liberman et al. (1973) study?
Data was collected on the duration of rational talk per day during the study.
Baseline: Period before reinforcement began.
Treatment A: Period when rational talk was reinforced, and irrational talk was extinguished.
72
What did the results of the Liberman et al. (1973) study show?
The duration of rational talk increased significantly during the treatment phase.
Irrational talk decreased as a result of the differential reinforcement strategy.
73
What is the role of deprivation in Unconditional (Primary) Reinforcers?
Unconditional reinforcers often depend on some amount of deprivation to be effective.
For example, being hungry makes food more reinforcing, and being thirsty makes water more valuable.
74
Are Unconditional (Primary) Reinforcers species-specific?
Yes, they are species-specific.
For example, water is a primary reinforcer for all animals, but food preferences can vary greatly among species.
Reinforcers are typically linked to the biological needs of the species.
75
What is a Conditional (Secondary) Reinforcer?
Conditional (Secondary) Reinforcer: A neutral stimulus or event that gains the ability to reinforce behavior because of its association with another reinforcer.
This often happens through a contingent relationship with unconditional reinforcers.
76
How do Conditional (Secondary) Reinforcers acquire their reinforcing ability?
They acquire their ability to reinforce through association with other, typically unconditional reinforcers.
For example, money is a secondary reinforcer because it can be used to obtain primary reinforcers like food or water.
77
What is the role of Immediacy in reinforcement?
Immediacy refers to the timing of a stimulus being delivered after a behavior.
A stimulus is more effective as a reinforcer when it is delivered immediately after the behavior.
Example: Giving a dog a treat right after it sits reinforces the behavior more effectively.
78
How does the Specific Reinforcer Used affect reinforcement?
The specific reinforcer used can affect how effective the reinforcement is.
Example: Chocolate is often more reinforcing than sunflower seeds due to personal preferences or biological factors.
Some reinforcers are more potent or preferable based on individual preferences or needs.
79
What are Task Characteristics and their impact on reinforcement?
Task characteristics refer to the nature of the task or behavior being reinforced.
Example: Reinforcing a pigeon pecking for food may be more effective than reinforcing a hawk pecking for food due to the inherent biological differences in species and task difficulty.
The task’s complexity or appropriateness can influence how well the reinforcement works.
80
What is Contingency in reinforcement?
Contingency refers to the relationship between a behavior and its consequence.
A stimulus is more effective as a reinforcer when it is delivered contingent (dependent) on the behavior.
The stronger the correlation between the behavior and the reward, the more effective the reinforcement will be.
81
What does Contiguity mean in the context of reinforcement?
Contiguity refers to the nearness of events in time (temporal contiguity) or space (spatial contiguity).
High contiguity is often referred to as pairing the behavior with the reinforcer.
Less contiguity, or longer delays between the behavior and the reinforcer, diminishes the effectiveness of reinforcement.
This principle is well-described by the Hyperbolic Decay Function, where the value of the reinforcer decreases as the delay increases.
82
What does the Hyperbolic Decay Function explain?
The Hyperbolic Decay Function describes how the effectiveness of reinforcement diminishes as the delay between the behavior and its consequence increases.
It shows a non-linear relationship, with the value of the reinforcer dropping faster at longer delays.
83
What is the formula for reinforcement value in terms of delay?
The value of a reinforcer can be calculated using the formula:
V= A/1+KD
V = Value of the reinforcer.
A = Maximum reinforcing value.
K = Rate of discounting (how quickly the value decreases with delay).
D = Delay (time between the behavior and the reinforcer).
84
What is the relationship between reinforcement magnitude and behavior?
The magnitude of the reinforcer refers to its intensity or size.
Generally, a larger or more intense stimulus is a more effective reinforcer.
However, the relationship between reinforcer size and effectiveness is not linear: the more you increase the magnitude, the less benefit you get from the increase.
The effectiveness of unconditional reinforcers tends to diminish quickly once the maximum value is reached.
85
What does the graph showing Reinforcer Magnitude illustrate?
The graph depicts the linear relationship between reinforcer magnitude and behavior.
As the reinforcer magnitude increases, the amount of behavior also increases.
However, the relationship is not always linear: at higher values, the effect of increasing magnitude diminishes (diminishing returns).
86
What is the concept of Motivating Operations in reinforcement?
Motivating Operations refer to changes in the environment that affect the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer.
Establishing operations make a stimulus more effective (e.g., deprivation increases the value of food).
Abolishing operations make a stimulus less effective (e.g., satiation reduces the value of food after eating).
87
What is a Continuous Reinforcement (CRF) Schedule?
In a Continuous Reinforcement (CRF) schedule, behavior is reinforced each time it occurs.
This schedule leads to a rapid increase in behavior.
Useful for shaping a new behavior because the learner receives reinforcement consistently.
Rare in the natural environment: In real life, behaviors are rarely reinforced every time they occur.
88
What are the different types of Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules?
Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules: Reinforcement occurs only sometimes after a behavior, rather than every time.
There are four main types of intermittent reinforcement schedules:
Fixed-Ratio (FR)
Variable-Ratio (VR)
Fixed-Interval (FI)
Variable-Interval (VI)
These schedules produce different patterns and rates of behavior compared to CRF schedules.
89
What is the Schedule Effect in reinforcement schedules?
Schedule Effect refers to the particular pattern and rate of behavior that results from different reinforcement schedules over time.
Different reinforcement schedules produce distinct patterns of responses. For example, behaviors reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule may occur more rapidly than those reinforced on a fixed-interval schedule.
90
How does the Schedule of Reinforcement affect behavior?
A Schedule of Reinforcement describes the rule for when a reinforcer will be delivered following a behavior.
The specific schedule influences how frequently and consistently the behavior will be performed.
Over the long term, the effects of different schedules are very predictable, and these patterns of behavior can occur in numerous species, including humans.
91
What is a Fixed-Ratio (FR) schedule?
In a Fixed-Ratio (FR) schedule, reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses.
Example: A rat receives a food pellet after pressing a lever five times.
Effect on behavior: Typically leads to a high rate of responding with a brief post-reinforcement pause (a short break after reinforcement).
92
What is a Variable-Ratio (VR) schedule?
In a Variable-Ratio (VR) schedule, reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses.
Example: A slot machine where you don’t know exactly when you'll win, but the reinforcement is based on an unpredictable number of pulls.
This schedule leads to steady and high rates of responding, as the person or animal cannot predict when reinforcement will occur.
93
What is a Fixed-Interval (FI) schedule?
In a Fixed-Interval (FI) schedule, reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.
Example: A pigeon receives food every 5 minutes, regardless of how many times it pecks the lever.
This schedule tends to produce scalloped patterns of responding, where behavior accelerates as the time for reinforcement nears.
94
What is a Variable-Interval (VI) schedule?
In a Variable-Interval (VI) schedule, reinforcement is delivered after a variable amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.
Example: A person receives a text message at unpredictable times.
This schedule produces steady responding at a moderate rate, as the person cannot predict when the next reinforcement will come.
95
What is a Variable-Ratio (VR) schedule?
In a Variable-Ratio (VR) schedule, the number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies around an average.
Example: A VR-360 schedule means the number of responses required may vary (e.g., 1, 10, 20, 30, 60, etc.), but the average number of responses is 360.
Characteristics:
Ratio requirement varies randomly from trial to trial.
Shuffled Ordering: The ratio requirement sequence could be mixed up (e.g., 20, 240, 720, 420, etc.).
High unpredictability in reinforcement, as the subject cannot predict exactly when they will be reinforced.
96
How does the Variable-Ratio (VR) schedule affect behavior?
PRPs (Post-reinforcement pauses) are rare and very short because of the unpredictable nature of reinforcement.
The schedule is influenced by the lowest ratio and/or the average ratio.
Produces higher rates of responding than a comparable Fixed-Ratio (FR) schedule.
Common in natural environments: VR schedules are frequently used in situations like gambling or certain hunting patterns.
97
What are the two common variations of the Variable-Ratio (VR) schedule?
1. Random-Ratio:
The schedule is controlled by a random number generator.
It produces similarly high rates of responding.
Common in casino games and video games (e.g., slot machines).
2. Progressive-Ratio:
Ratio requirements move from small to large (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, etc.).
PRPs increase as the ratio increases.
Creates a break-point measure, which helps gauge how much effort the organism is willing to put into the behavior before it becomes too demanding.
98
What is a Fixed-Interval (FI) schedule?
In a Fixed-Interval (FI) schedule, reinforcement occurs after a set period of time has passed.
Example: FI-4 minutes means that the subject is reinforced for behavior that occurs after a fixed period of 4 minutes.
This schedule produces PRPs.
The response rate gradually increases, forming a scalloped shape on response-rate graphs.
This schedule is uncommon in natural environments because behaviors are not typically reinforced after fixed time intervals.
99
How does a Fixed-Interval (FI) schedule affect behavior?
PRPs (Post-reinforcement pauses) are typically seen after the subject receives reinforcement.
Response rate increases gradually over the course of the interval, producing a scalloped or staircase pattern in behavior graphs.
Example: After receiving a reward, the subject tends to pause and then slowly increase their responses as the next reward becomes available.
Uncommon in the natural environment because reinforcement after a fixed time is rare in real-world settings.
100
What is a Variable-Interval (VI) schedule?
In a Variable-Interval (VI) schedule, the timing of responses required for reinforcement varies each time, but the interval averages to a set value.
Example: VI-3 minutes means the subject is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time, with an average of 3 minutes (e.g., 300 sec, 30 sec, 280 sec, etc.).
Characteristics:
PRPs are rare and short.
This schedule produces steady rates of responding, not as high as in VR schedules, but consistent over time.
Common in natural environments: VI schedules can be seen in nature (e.g., waiting for fish to bite).
101
What do the "ideal" examples of different reinforcement schedules look like?What does the ideal pattern for a Fixed-Ratio (FR) schedule look like?
Pattern: A staircase-like pattern with Post-reinforcement pauses (PRPs).
Behavior:
A rapid rate of responses occurs immediately after reinforcement.
Short pauses follow after each reinforcement.
Reinforcement is delivered after a set number of responses.
102
What does the ideal pattern for a Variable-Ratio (VR) schedule look like?
Pattern: Steady rate of responses with no predictable pauses.
Behavior:
Responses occur continuously at a steady rate, with fewer pauses between reinforcements.
The number of responses needed for reinforcement varies, making the schedule harder to predict.
This leads to higher response rates compared to Fixed-Ratio (FR) schedules.
103
What does the ideal pattern for a Fixed-Interval (FI) schedule look like?
Pattern: "Scalloped" shape in the response pattern, with gradual increases after each reinforcement.
The response rate starts slow immediately after reinforcement.
As the reinforcement time approaches, the response rate increases, peaking just before the next reinforcement.
Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed period of time, regardless of the number of responses.
104
What does the ideal pattern for a Variable-Interval (VI) schedule look like?
Pattern: Steady, consistent responding with no obvious pauses between responses.
Behavior:
Reinforcement occurs at unpredictable intervals.
Steady response rates are maintained, though they may not be as high as the Variable-Ratio (VR) schedule.
Reinforcement is based on time rather than the number of responses, making it harder to predict.
105
What are competing contingencies in the context of reinforcement, and how do they affect behavior?
Competing Contingencies refer to situations where two or more potential reinforcements are available, creating a choice between them.
Example: Deciding whether to watch YouTube or study.
The individual is weighing which behavior (watching YouTube or studying) will lead to the more immediate or desirable reinforcement.
This competition can influence the frequency of each behavior depending on which reinforcer is more valuable, available, or immediate.
106
What does the Premack Principle state?
The Premack Principle states that a high-probability behavior (H) can reinforce a low-probability behavior (L), but the reverse does not work.
Example: If a child prefers eating to studying, you can reinforce studying by allowing the child to eat after they study.
107
What are high-probability and low-probability behaviors in the Premack Principle?
High-probability behavior (H): A behavior that is more likely to occur (e.g., eating).
Low-probability behavior (L): A behavior that is less likely to occur (e.g., studying).
108
How do you test the Premack Principle?
Establish baseline responding for different behaviors.
Instrumental conditioning procedure:
L → H: Reinforces L.
H → L: Does not reinforce H.
Implication: A high-probability response can reinforce a low-probability response.
109
What happens when a water-deprived rat is used in the Premack Principle test?
L → H (Drinking reinforces running): Rats will run to drink.
H → L (Running does not reinforce drinking): Rats will not drink to run.
110
What happens when a rat has unlimited water in the Premack Principle test?
L → H (Drinking reinforces running): Rats will drink to run.
H → L (Running does not reinforce drinking): Rats will not run to drink.
111
How does the Premack Principle apply to children's behavior?
Example: Children who prefer playing pinball to eating candy can be reinforced for eating candy by letting them play pinball after each piece of candy they eat.
Key Point: Only kids who preferred candy or pinball showed the reinforcement effect.
112
How can the Premack Principle be applied in clinical settings?
The principle can be used to identify which behaviors are reinforcing (high probability of occurring) for clinical patients.
Example: Use it to treat stereotyped behaviors in children with autism or to encourage patients with schizophrenia to sit still.
113
What is a Controlling Stimulus (S)?
A stimulus that changes the probability of an operant behavior.
114
What is a Discriminative Stimulus (SD)?
A stimulus or event that precedes an operant and sets the occasion for its reinforcement. It is also known as the occasion setter.
115
What is an Extinction Stimulus (SΔ)?
A stimulus or event that precedes an operant and sets the occasion for its non-reinforcement. It is pronounced "S-delta."
116
In the example where a person is in the library, what is the antecedent, behavior, and consequence?
Antecedent (A): Being in the Library
Behavior (B): Speaking Loudly
Consequence (C): Asked to Be Quiet
117
In the example where a person is in a restaurant, what is the antecedent, behavior, and consequence?
Antecedent (A): Being in a Restaurant
Behavior (B): Speaking Loudly
Consequence (C): Conversation Proceeds
118
What happens when a pigeon pecks at a red light with no food as reinforcement?
Antecedent (SΔ): Red Light
Behavior (R): Peck
Consequence (Extinction): No Food (Extinction occurs)
119
What happens when a male bird hops to a feeder after hearing a female bird call, but there is no food?
Antecedent (SΔ): Female Call
Behavior (R): Hop to Feeder
Consequence (Extinction): No Food (Extinction occurs)
120
What is a Controlling Stimulus (S)?
A stimulus that changes the probability of an operant behavior.
121
What is a Discriminative Stimulus (SD)?
A stimulus or event that precedes an operant and sets the occasion for its reinforcement.
Example: Cue light.
122
What is an Extinction Stimulus (SΔ)?
A stimulus or event that precedes an operant and sets the occasion for its non-reinforcement.
Pronounced: "S-delta."
123
What is the relationship between Antecedent, Behavior, and Consequence?
A (Antecedent): Stimulus
B (Behavior): Response
C (Consequence): Outcome
Example 1:
A: Being in the library
B: Speaking loudly
C: Asked to be quiet
Example 2:
A: Being in a restaurant
B: Speaking loudly
C: Conversation proceeds
124
What happens when the Red Light (SΔ) is present?
SΔ (Red Light): No food
Behavior: Peck
Consequence: Extinction (no food)
125
What happens when a Female Call (SΔ) is present?
SΔ (Female Call): No food
Behavior: Hop to feeder
Consequence: Extinction (no food)
126
What is an Establishing Operation?
An operation that makes a stimulus more effective as a reinforcer at a particular time.
Example: Deprivation.
127
What is a Discriminative Stimulus?
A stimulus present when a behavior is reinforced.
Example: Cue light.
128
What is an Abolishing Operation?
An operation that makes a stimulus less potent as a reinforcer at a particular time.
Example: Satiation.
129
What is an Extinction Stimulus?
A stimulus present when a behavior is not reinforced.
Example: No cue light.
130
What is the difference between Antecedents and Consequences?
Antecedents:
Include establishing and abolishing
operations, as well as control stimuli
They evoke a behavior
They alter the current probability of a behavior
Consequences:
Include reinforcers and punishers
They strengthen or weaken a behavior
They alter the future probability of a behavior
131
What is the definition of discrimination in the context of behaviorism?
Discrimination occurs when the presence (or absence) of stimuli sets the occasion for a response to be followed by reinforcement. It refers to the effect that the occasion-setting contingency (like a cue or stimulus) has on the likelihood of a behavior being reinforced. For example, a bird will only peck a key when the green light is on, and pecking will be reinforced only in the presence of the green light.
132
How does discrimination refer to the effect of a stimulus on behavior?
Discrimination refers to the effect an occasion-setting contingency has on behavior. It means that a response is more likely to occur in the presence of a specific discriminative stimulus (SD) than its absence. For example, a bird may only peck the key when the green light is on, demonstrating discrimination in behavior.
133
What is the concept of discriminative stimulus (SD) in discrimination?
A discriminative stimulus (SD) is the specific stimulus or event that precedes an operant and sets the occasion for its reinforcement. It signals that reinforcement is available. For example, the green light is an SD that signals when pecking the key will result in food.
134
What is an extinction stimulus (SΔ) in behaviorism?
An extinction stimulus (SΔ) is a stimulus that precedes an operant behavior and signals the occasion for its non-reinforcement. When the extinction stimulus is present, the behavior is not reinforced. For example, when the red light is on, a bird pecking the key does not result in food, as the behavior is no longer reinforced.
135
How did rats in the experiment learn to discriminate between light and no light?
In the experiment, rats were trained to press a lever when a light was present (SD) but not when the light was absent (SΔ). Over time, the rats learned to discriminate the presence of the light and increased their lever pressing during the light periods. This process of learning was reflected in the change in their median response rate over multiple training sessions.
136
What does learning to discriminate involve?
Learning to discriminate involves the ability to differentiate between a stimulus (SD) that signals reinforcement and one that does not (SΔ). This is demonstrated by how the rats gradually increased their lever pressing when the light was on (SD) and decreased when the light was off (SΔ), showing the development of discrimination in their behavior.
137
What is the difference between establishing operations and discriminative stimuli?
Establishing Operations make a stimulus more effective as a reinforcer at a particular time. For example, deprivation increases the value of a reinforcer, like food when an organism is hungry.
Discriminative Stimuli (SD) are specific stimuli that signal when a behavior will be reinforced. For example, a cue light might signal when a response will be reinforced.
Both increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the moment, but establishing operations focus on the value of the reinforcer, while discriminative stimuli indicate availability of reinforcement.
138
What are abolishing operations in behaviorism?
Abolishing operations make a stimulus less effective as a reinforcer at a particular time. For example, satiation decreases the value of a reinforcer, like when an organism is no longer hungry and food is no longer as reinforcing.
139
What is the relationship between antecedents and consequences in behaviorism?
Antecedents include establishing and abolishing operations, as well as control stimuli that "evoke" a behavior and alter the current probability of a behavior. Consequences, on the other hand, include reinforcers and punishers that strengthen or weaken a behavior, altering the future probability of that behavior.
140
What is the definition of "Stimulus Control"?
Stimulus control is a change in operant behavior that occurs when either a discriminative stimulus (SD) or an extinction stimulus (SΔ) is presented.
141
What does it mean when a stimulus is referred to as a "Discriminative Stimulus" (SD)?
A discriminative stimulus (SD) is a stimulus or event that precedes an operant response and sets the occasion for its reinforcement. For example, a key pecking behavior is reinforced only when a green light is on.
142
What is the definition of "Discrimination" in operant conditioning?
Discrimination occurs when the presence (or absence) of stimuli is the occasion on which a response will be followed by reinforcement. In other words, it is the effect that a stimulus has on behavior, making the behavior more likely in the presence of the discriminative stimulus (SD) and less likely in its absence.
143
What is the "Discrimination Index" (ID)?
The Discrimination Index (ID) is a measure of the stimulus control exerted by an SD or SΔ. It is calculated using the rate of responding during the SD (SD rate) divided by the sum of the SD rate and the SΔ rate. This gives a ratio that indicates how strongly the behavior is controlled by the SD.
144
What is the difference between "Generalization" and "Discrimination"?
Discrimination refers to precise stimulus control, where behavior is reinforced only in the presence of a specific discriminative stimulus (SD).
Generalization refers to less precise control, where a response occurs in the presence of stimuli similar to the SD. Generalization is achieved by training in a variety of settings or with various stimuli.
145
What does it mean for a pigeon to be "discriminating" between two situations?
When a pigeon is discriminating between two situations, it is responding differently depending on the stimulus present, such as responding to a specific color of light.
146
How does stimulus generalization work in operant conditioning?
Stimulus generalization occurs when once an operant response is reinforced for one stimulus, the response will also occur for other similar stimuli. This is observed when an organism responds to similar stimuli even though it was specifically trained with a different stimulus.
147
What is the general shape of a graph comparing responses in discrimination and generalization?
Discrimination typically shows a narrow, sharp peak, indicating that responses are focused on one specific stimulus.
Generalization typically shows a broader, flatter curve, indicating that responses are made to a range of stimuli that resemble the trained stimulus.
148
What is an example of how stimulus control can be learned in an experiment with rats?
In a study with rats, a light (SD) would signal when to press a lever, and the absence of light (SΔ) would signal when not to press. Over time, the rats learned to discriminate, pressing the lever only when the light was on.
149
What happens during "Stimulus Discrimination" in operant conditioning?
During stimulus discrimination, less pronounced conditioned responses (CR) occur to stimuli that differ from the original conditioned stimulus (CS). The organism exhibits a stronger response to the trained stimulus (e.g., the original CS) and weaker responses to other, similar stimuli.
150
What is Discrimination in operant behavior?
Discrimination occurs when the presence (or absence) of stimuli serves as the occasion on which a response will be followed by reinforcement.
Example: Key pecking is reinforced only when the green light is on.
151
How is "setting the occasion for reinforcement" related to discrimination?
"Setting the occasion for reinforcement" refers to the environmental contingency where a specific stimulus (SD) signals that a behavior will be reinforced.
Example: The green light is the SD for key pecking to be reinforced.
152
What is the meaning of "Discrimination refers to" in operant conditioning?
Discrimination refers to the effect an occasion setting contingency has on behavior. It means a response is more likely to occur in the presence of the SD than in its absence.
Example: A bird only pecks the key when the green light is on.
153
What is the Discrimination Index?
The Discrimination Index (I_D) is a measure of the stimulus control exerted by an SD or SΔ. It is calculated as:
Id = SDrate / (SDrate + S△rate)
Where:
SD rate = Rate of responding during SD
SΔ rate = Rate of responding during SΔ
154
What is the difference between Discrimination and Generalization?
Discrimination refers to precise control, where a behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus.
Generalization refers to less precise control, where a behavior is reinforced across a range of similar stimuli.
155
What are Generalization Gradients?
Generalization gradients show how responses occur across a range of stimuli.
In Discrimination, the response is highly specific to the trained stimulus.
In Generalization, the response gradually spreads to other similar stimuli.
156
What does Concept Formation mean in operant conditioning?
Concept Formation refers to the process where organisms learn to categorize stimuli based on shared features, such as distinguishing the "concept" of human.
Example: Teaching pigeons the concept of human behavior by reinforcing behaviors when a pigeon interacts with human-like stimuli.
157
How is the Stroop Effect explained?
The Stroop Effect is a cognitive phenomenon where naming the color of the word is harder when the word itself is a conflicting color (e.g., the word "blue" written in red).
Cognitive explanation: The effect may be due to selective attention to eligible responses at the response selection level.
158
How does Generalization occur in classical conditioning?
Stimulus Generalization occurs when a conditioned response (CR) is elicited by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS).
Example: Once a dog is conditioned to respond to a bell, it may also respond to a similar sound.
159
Why is Generalization important in real-world scenarios?
Generalization ensures that behaviors learned in controlled environments, such as therapy or classrooms, occur in the real world, which often involves different stimuli and conditions.
Example: If a child learns to use polite manners at home, they should also use manners in other environments, like school or public places.
160
What is the difference between Discrimination Training and Generalization Training?
Discrimination Training: Involves reinforcing behavior in the presence of a specific stimulus (SD) and not reinforcing it in the presence of other stimuli (SΔ).
Generalization Training: Involves reinforcing behavior in the presence of a variety of stimuli to encourage broader application of the behavior.
161
What is discrimination training in behavioral psychology?
Discrimination training is when a behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus (SD) and not in the presence of other stimuli (SΔ). For example, a child gets praise for saying "dog" when a large dog is shown, but no praise for saying "dog" when shown a pony or goat.
162
What is the outcome of discrimination training?
The outcome is that the child is more likely to call a large dog a dog and less likely to call other animals like ponies or goats dogs.
163
What is generalization training in behavioral psychology?
Generalization training occurs when a behavior is reinforced across multiple instances of a stimulus. For example, a child learns to say "dog" to large, small, and medium dogs.
164
What is the outcome of generalization training?
The child is more likely to label any dog they see as a "dog."
165
What is the concept formation in behavioral psychology?
Concept formation involves both generalizing within classes of stimuli and discriminating between different classes of stimuli. An example is teaching pigeons the "concept" of humans.
166
What is the Stroop Effect in cognitive psychology?
The Stroop Effect occurs when there is a delay in identifying the color of a word because the word itself spells out a different color (e.g., the word "blue" written in red color). It shows how automatic reading can interfere with other tasks.
167
What is stimulus generalization?
Stimulus generalization is when a conditioned response (CR) occurs to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS). It also occurs in operant responses when they generalize to similar stimuli.
168
Why is generalization important in practice?
Generalization is important because real-world situations are unlikely to match the specific conditions of training. It helps ensure that behavior learned in one setting applies in others.
169
What strategies can be used to promote generalization?
Strategies include reinforcing instances of generalization, training skills that contact naturally occurring contingencies of reinforcement, and modifying contingencies of reinforcement and punishment in natural environments.
170
What is a method to promote generalization in training settings?
You should sample a variety of relevant stimuli situations in training, such as training across different settings and incorporating common stimuli from the real world to make training and criterion settings similar.
171
What is the strategy of incorporating self-generated mediators of generalization?
This involves techniques like self-recording and self-instruction, where the individual uses these tools to help reinforce the learned behavior in real-world situations.
