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Additional Biology > Topic 3 - Organ Systems > Flashcards

Topic 3 - Organ Systems Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a fossil?

A

Any trace of an animal or plant that lived long ago

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2
Q

What are the three ways fossils can be formed?

A
  • Gradual replacement by minerals
  • Casts and impressions
  • Preservation in places where no decay happens
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3
Q

How do fossils form by gradual replacement of minerals?

A
  • Things like teeth, shells, bones, don’t decay easily so last a long time when buried
  • Eventually replaced my minerals
  • Form rock like substances shaped like original hard part
  • Fossil stays distinct inside rock, eventually dug up
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4
Q

How do fossils form from casts and impressions?

A
  • Form when organism is buried in soft material like clay
  • Clay hardens around it when it decays, leaving cast of itself
  • Footprints can be pressed into these materials when soft, leaving impression when hardens
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5
Q

How do fossils form from preservation in places where no decay happens?

A

-Where conditions aren’t suitable for microbes to work (e.g. glaciers, too cold; peat bogs, too acidic; amber, no oxygen or moisture)

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6
Q

What can we tell from fossils found in rock layers?

A
  • What the creatures/plants looked like
  • How long ago they existed (deeper rock = older fossil)
  • How they’ve evolved (study similarities/differences between fossils in differently aged rocks, see how species changed/developed over billions of years)
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7
Q

What is the problem with the fossil record?

A

It is incomplete

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8
Q

Why is the fossil record incomplete?

A
  • Very few dead plants/animals turn into fossils; most just decay away
  • Some body parts (e.g. soft tissue) decay away completely
  • Some fossils yet to be discovered
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9
Q

What is a pentadactyl limb?

A

A limb with 5 digits

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10
Q

What species can you see the pentadactyl limb in?

A
  • Mammals
  • Reptiles
  • Amphibians
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11
Q

What can be the difference between the pentadactyl limb between species?

A

Similar bone structure but used for different functions e.g. bat vs human

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12
Q

What does the similarity in bone structure (pentadactyl limb) show us?

A

Provides evidence species with pentadactyl limb have evolved from common ancestor (that had pentadactyl limb)

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13
Q

What are the 3 ways you can measure the growth of an organism?

A
  • Size (measure height, length, width, circumference)
  • Wet mass (organisms contain lots of water; mass of organism depends on how much water gained/lost; wet mass is mass including all water in its body so can vary from one day to next)
  • Dry mass (mass of organism with no water in body; doesn’t vary like wet mass; can only measure when organism dead; organism dried out by leaving in hot oven overnight)
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14
Q

What are the three processes involved in growth/development of an organism?

A
  • Cell differentiation
  • Cell division
  • Cell elongation
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15
Q

How does an organism grow/develop by cell differentiation?

A

The process by which a cell changed to become specialised for its job

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16
Q

How does an organism grow/develop by cell division?

A

Mitosis

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17
Q

How does an organism grow/develop by cell elongation?

A

Where a plant cell expand, making cell bigger so making plant grow. Only happens in plants.

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18
Q

How does growth occur in animals?

A
  • Cell division
  • Grow when young, reach full growth + stop growing
  • Cells divide fast when young
  • Older: cell division only for repair (replace old/damaged cells)
  • In most animals, cell differentiation lost at early age
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19
Q

How does growth occur in plants?

A
  • Often grow continuously
  • Continue to differentiate to form new parts
  • Growth in height mainly due to cell elongation
  • Cell division: usually done in tops of roots + shoots
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20
Q

What is a growth chart used for?

A

To assess a child’s growth over time, so that an overall pattern in development can be seen + any problems highlighted

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21
Q

Give one example of when a growth chart might be used.

A

After birth a baby’s growth is regularly monitored to ensure it’s growing properly

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22
Q

What 3 measurements of a baby are usually taken to ensure a baby is growing properly?

A
  • Length
  • Mass
  • Circumference
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23
Q

How does a growth chart show the information?

A
  • As a number of percentiles

- e.g. 50th percentile = mass 50% of babies reached at certain age

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24
Q

On a growth chart, what would cause the doctors to become concerned?

A
  • Above 98th percentile or below 2nd percentile

- An inconsistent pattern

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25
Q

What are tissues?

A
  • e.g. muscle tissue

- A group of similar cells that work together to carry out a particular function

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26
Q

What are organs?

A
  • e.g. the heart

- A group of different tissues that work together to perform a particular function

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27
Q

What are organ systems?

A
  • e.g. circulatory system

- A group of organs working together to form a particular function

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28
Q

What are the four main chambers of the heart?

A
  • Right atrium
  • Right ventricle
  • Left atrium
  • Left ventricle
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29
Q

What are the four main blood vessels of the heart?

A
  • Pulmonary artery
  • Vena cava
  • Aorta
  • Pulmonary vein
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30
Q

How does deoxygenated blood travel around the heart?

A

Vena cava –> right atrium –> right ventricle –> pulmonary artery

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31
Q

How does oxygenated blood travel around the heart?

A

Pulmonary vein –> left atrium –> left ventricle –> aorta

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32
Q

What is the role of the vena cava?

A

Take deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart (right atrium)

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33
Q

What is the role of the pulmonary artery?

A

Take the deoxygenated blood from the heart (right ventricle) to the lungs to become oxygenated

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34
Q

What is the role of the right ventricle?

A

Pump deoxygenated blood to the lungs to be oxygenated through the pulmonary artery

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35
Q

What is the role of the pulmonary vein?

A

Take oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart (left atrium)

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36
Q

What is the role of the left ventricle?

A

Pump the oxygenated blood from the heart around the body via the aorta

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37
Q

What is the role of the aorta?

A

Take the oxygenated blood from the heart around the body

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38
Q

Why is the wall of the left ventricle more muscular than the right wall?

A

The right ventricle has to pump blood all around the body whereas the right ventricle only pumps blood to the lungs

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39
Q

What is the role of the valves in the heart?

A

Prevent backflow of blood

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40
Q

What is the role of the red blood cells?

A

Carry oxygen from the lungs to all the cells in the body

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41
Q

What is the shape of the red blood cells and how does this help them perform their function?

A
  • Doughnut shape (bioconcave disc shape)

- Gives a large surface area for absorbing oxygen

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42
Q

Where is haemoglobin found and what does it do?

A
  • Substance found in red blood cells
  • Contains lots of iron
  • In lungs: combines with oxygen, becoming oxyhaemoglobin
  • In body tissues: reverse happens to release oxygen to cells
43
Q

What don’t red blood cells have and why?

A
  • Nucleus

- Make more room for haemoglobin

44
Q

What can happen if you have a lack of iron?

A

A type of anaemia where blood can’t carry enough oxygen

45
Q

What do white blood cells do?

A

Defend against disease

46
Q

How do white blood cells fight against disease?

A
  • Change shape to ‘gobble up’ unwanted microorganisms
  • Produce antibodies to fight microorganisms
  • Produce antitoxins to neutralise any toxins produced by the microorganisms
47
Q

What can happen if you have a low white blood cell count?

A

Increase risk of infection

48
Q

What could it mean if you have a high white blood cell count?

A

You have an infection or even leukaemia (cancer of the blood)

49
Q

What are platelets and what do they do?

A
  • Small fragments of cells

- Help blood to clot at a wound (to stop blood pouring out + microorganisms getting in)

50
Q

What can happen if you have a lack of platelets?

A

Excessive bleeding + bruising

51
Q

What is the role of the plasma?

A
  • Pale yellow liquid
  • Keeps the blood fluid
  • Transports things around the body
52
Q

What does the plasma transport around the body?

A
  • Red/white blood cells + platelets
  • Nutrients e.g. glucose + amino acids (absorbed from gut + taken to body cells)
  • CO2 (waste product formed in cells; transported in blood to lungs where removed)
  • Urea (waste product formed in liver; blood transports to kidneys where its removed)
  • Hormones (transported from glands to target organs)
  • Antibodies + antitoxins produced by white blood cells
53
Q

What are the three types of blood vessels?

A
  • Arteries
  • Capillaries
  • Veins
54
Q

What does an artery do?

A

Carry blood away from the heart

55
Q

What does a capillary do?

A

Involved in the exchange of materials with the tissues

56
Q

What does a vein do?

A

Carry blood to the heart

57
Q

What is the structure of an artery and how does this help it do its function?

A
  • Walls thick compared to size of hole down middle (lumen)
  • Contain thick layers of muscle making them strong
  • Walls are strong + elastic as heart pumps blood out at high pressure
58
Q

What do arteries branch into?

A

Capillaries

59
Q

What size are capillaries?

A

Tiny, too small to see

60
Q

How does the structure of a capillary help perform its function?

A
  • Carry blood very close to every cell in body to exchange substances with them
  • Permeable walls: so substances can diffuse in + out
  • Supply food + oxygen + take away wastes e.g. CO2
  • Walls usually 1 cell thick; increases rate of diffusion by decreasing distances over which it occurs
61
Q

What do capillaries join up to form?

A

Veins

62
Q

What is the structure of a vein and how does this help it do its function?

A
  • Blood at lower pressure in veins so walls don’t need to be as thick as artery wall
  • Larger lumen than arteries (help blood flow despite lower pressure)
  • Have valves ti keep blood flowing in right direction
63
Q

What are the big molecules that are too big to pass through the walls of the digestive system?

A
  • Starch
  • Proteins
  • Fats
64
Q

What are the small molecules that can easily pass through the walls of digestion?

A
  • Sugars
  • Amino acids
  • Glycerol
  • Fatty acids
65
Q

What are the digestive enzymes and what do they break down?

A
  • Carbohydrase (e.g. amylase): digest starch to sugars
  • Proteases (e.g. pepsin): digest proteins to amino acids
  • Lipase: digest fat to fatty acids + glycerol
66
Q

Why are big molecules broken down into smaller molecules?

A

Big molecules (e.g. starch) are insoluble; broken down into smaller molecules (e.g. sugars) which are soluble

67
Q

Which organ system contains food moving around the body?

A

Digestive system

68
Q

What is the order of organs in the digestive system that FOOD PASSES THROUGH?

A

Mouth –> oesophagus –> stomach –> small intestine –> large intestine

69
Q

What is the role of the mouth in digestion?

A
  • Moistens food with saliva from salivary glands
  • Salivary glands produce amylase enzymes in saliva that breaks down starch
  • Food chewed to form ball of food (bolus) before being swallowed
70
Q

What is the role of the oesophagus in digestion?

A
  • Tube that takes food from mouth to stomach

- Lined with muscle that contract to help ball move along by peristalsis

71
Q

What is the role of the stomach in digestion?

A
  • Pummels food with its muscular wall
  • Produces protease enzyme pepsin
  • Produces hydrochloric acid
72
Q

What is the role of the hydrochloric acid in the stomach?

A
  • Kill bacteria

- Give the right pH for protease enzyme to work (pH 2, acidic)

73
Q

What is the role of the liver in digestion?

A

Where bile is produced

74
Q

What is the role of the bile?

A
  • Neutralises stomach acid

- Emulsifies fat

75
Q

What is the role of the gall bladder in digestion?

A

Where bile is stored before it’s released into small intestine

76
Q

What is the role of the pancreas in digestion?

A
  • Produces protease, amylase + lipase enzymes

- Releases these into small intestine

77
Q

What is the role of the small intestine in digestion?

A
  • Produces protease, amylase + lipase enzymes to complete digestion
  • Where food is absorbed out of digestive system into body
78
Q

What is the role of the large intestine in digestion?

A

Where excess water is absorbed from the food

79
Q

Why is visking tubing a good model for a gut?

A
  • Only lets small molecules through + not big molecules (like gut)
  • Cheaper + easier than animal’s gut
80
Q

Why is visking tubing not a good model for the gut?

A

Gut is longer + has massive surface area so speed of digestion + absorption is slightly different

81
Q

What experiment can you do to model the gut?

A

Visking tubing filled with amylase + starch solution in distilled water

82
Q

What is the colour order of Benedict’s Reagent and what does each colour show?

A
  • blue–>green–>yello–>orange–>brick-red

- Blue when no sugar and go towards red if there is sugar presemt

83
Q

When there are higher concentrations of amylase, Benedict’s Reagent gets nearer towards red; why?

A
  • More starch being broken down into sugar
  • Due to higher concentration of amylase there are more active sites available to break down starch to sugar
  • So starch broken down at faster rate
  • Above a certain amylase concentration reaction won’t go any faster as already enough active sites to deal with all starch
84
Q

What is another name for the gut?

A

Alimentary canal

85
Q

What are the two types of muscular tissues running down the digestive system?

A
  • Longitudinal muscles: run down length of gut

- Circular muscles: running in circles around the gut

86
Q

What are the roles of the muscular tissue running down the digestive system?

A

Squeeze the food along, through peristalsis

87
Q

How do the circular muscles push food along the gut?

A

Waves of circular muscle contractions

88
Q

How do the longitudinal muscles push food along the gut?

A

Run slightly ahead of the circular muscle contractions, as longitudinal muscle contractions, to keep food in a ball

89
Q

Why is bile needed to neutralise stomach acid?

A
  • HCl in stomach too acidic for enzymes in small intestine to work properly
  • Bile is alkaline
  • Neutralises acid + makes conditions alkaline
  • Enzymes in small intestine work best at alkaline
90
Q

How does bile emulsify fat?

A
  • Breaks down fat into tiny droplets

- Gives larger surface area of fat for enzyme lipase to work, making digestion faster

91
Q

What are the 3 features of the villi that make absorbing digested food into the bloodstream efficient?

A
  • Big surface area: digested food absorbed more quickly into blood
  • Single layer of surface cells: digested food diffuses quickly over a short distance
  • Good supply via capillary network: assist quick absorption
92
Q

What are probiotics?

A
  • Live bacteria

- Good bacteria (similar to ones found naturally in gut)

93
Q

Give 2 examples of probiotic.

A
  • Bifidobacteria

- Lactobacillus (a lactic acid bacterium)

94
Q

What kind of foods are probiotics added to?

A

-Yoghurt
-Soya milk
-Dietary supplements e.g. capsules
[-May already been there or added by manufacturer]

95
Q

What benefits are probiotics thought to have?

A
  • Keep immune system strong

- Keep digestive system healthy

96
Q

What are prebiotics?

A
  • Carbohydrates we can’t digest

- Food supply to ‘good’ bacteria already in digestive system

97
Q

Which foods do prebiotics naturally occur in?

A

-Leeks
-Onions
-Oats
[-Not enough in normal diet for significant effect; some take supplements containing prebiotics]

98
Q

What is it thought that prebiotics do?

A

Helps promote growth of good bacteria in gut (in turn improving digestive system’s health + immune system’s strength)

99
Q

Give one example of a prebiotic.

A

Oligosaccharides

100
Q

What are plant stanol esters?

A

Chemicals that can lower blood cholesterol + lower risk of heart disease

101
Q

How are plant stanol esters made?

A
  • Occur naturally in plants (in very small quantities)

- Produced commercially: use bacteria to convert sterols (types of fat found in plants like soya beans) into stanols

102
Q

What foods are plant stanol esters usually found in?

A
  • Manufacturers add to spreads + some dairy products

- Those worried about blood cholesterol may choose it over other spreads

103
Q

Functional foods aren’t proven to have health benefits but claim to. What must you think to see if you think they wok?

A
  • If reported + published scientific study in reputable journal
  • Written by qualified person (not connected with sellers)
  • Sample of people asked/tested large enough for reliable results
  • Other studies have found similar results

Additional Biology (3 decks)

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