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Biology > Topic 3: Infection and Response > Flashcards

Topic 3: Infection and Response Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

A microorganism that enters the body and causes disease

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2
Q

What are bacteria?

A

Very small cells, which reproduce rapidly in your body

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3
Q

Why do bacteria make you feel ill?

A

They produce toxins that damage your cells and tissues

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4
Q

Are viruses cells?

A

No, they’re much smaller

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5
Q

Why do viruses make you feel ill? [3]

A
  1. They live inside your cells to reproduce using your cells’ machinery
  2. The cell will then burst, releasing the viruses
  3. This cell damage is what makes you feel ill
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6
Q

What is a protist?

A

A single-celled eukaryote

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7
Q

How are protists transferred to an organism?

A

By a vector

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8
Q

Will a vector get a disease itself from a protist?

A

No (carries it)

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9
Q

What are fungi (two types)?

A
  1. Single-celled organisms
  2. Body made up of hyphae
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10
Q

How do hyphae cause disease?

A

They can grow and penetrate human skin and the surface of plants

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11
Q

How is fungi spread?

A

The hyphae can produce spores, which can be spread to other plants and animals

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12
Q

How can pathogens be spread? [3]

A
  1. Water
  2. Air
  3. Direct contact
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13
Q

What is a disease spread by water?

A

Cholera

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14
Q

What is a disease spread by air?

A

Influenza

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15
Q

What is a disease spread by direct contact?

A

Athlete’s foot

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16
Q

What kind of disease is measles?

A

Viral

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17
Q

What are the symptoms of measles? [2]

A
  1. Red skin rash
  2. Fever
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18
Q

How is measles spread?

A

By inhalation of droplets from an infected person’s sneeze or cough

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19
Q

What can measles lead to? [2]

A
  1. Pneumonia
  2. Inflammation of the brain
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20
Q

Are most people vaccinated against measles?

A

Yes (when they’re young)

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21
Q

What kind of disease is HIV?

A

Viral

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22
Q

What are the initial symptoms of HIV?

A

Flu-like symptoms

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23
Q

What is AIDS?

A

Late stage HIV

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24
Q

What causes AIDS?

A

When the body’s immune system has become so badly damaged by HIV infection that it can no longer deal with other infections or cancers

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25
Q

How is HIV spread? [2]

A
  1. Sexual contact
  2. Exchange of bodily fluids e.g. blood in needles
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26
Q

What are the symptoms of TMV?

A

Mosaic pattern of discolouration on leaves

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27
Q

Why does TMV affect plant growth?

A

The discolouration means that the plant can’t carry out photosynthesis as well

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28
Q

What kind of disease is rose black spot?

A

Fungal

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29
Q

What are the symptoms of rose black spot?

A

Purple or black spots on leaves, which often turn yellow and drop off

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30
Q

Why does rose black spot affect plant growth?

A

Less photosynthesis can happen

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31
Q

How is rose black spot spread? [2]

A
  1. Wind
  2. Water
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32
Q

How can rose black spot be treated? [2]

A
  1. Using fungicides
  2. Stripping plants of affected leaves
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33
Q

What is malaria caused by?

A

A protist

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34
Q

How is the malarial protist spread? [2]

A
  1. Mosquitos (vector) pick up malarial protist when they feed on an infected animal
  2. Every time the mosquito feeds on another animal, it infects it by inserting the protist into the animal’s blood vessels
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35
Q

What are the symptoms of malaria?

A

Repeating episodes of fever

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36
Q

How is the spread of malaria reduced? [3]

A
  1. Stopping mosquitoes from breeding
  2. Mosquito nets
  3. Insecticides
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37
Q

What is Salmonella food poisoning?

A

Bacteria

38
Q

How can salmonella food posioning be spread? [2]

A
  1. Ingesting food with salmonella bacteria
  2. Eating food that has been prepared in unhygienic conditions
39
Q

What are the symptoms of salmonella food poisoning? [4]

A
  1. Fever
  2. Stomach cramps
  3. Vomiting
  4. Diarrhoea
40
Q

How is the spread of salmonella controlled?

A

In the UK, poultry are vaccinated are vaccinated against Salmonella

41
Q

What is gonorrhea?

A

A bacteria

42
Q

How is gonorrhoea spread?

A

Unprotected sex

43
Q

What are the symptons of gonorrhoea? [2]

A
  1. Pain when urinating
  2. Thick yellow or green discharge from vagina or penis
44
Q

Why is gonorrhoea harder to treat with antibiotics now?

A

Strains of the bacteria have become resistant to antibiotics

45
Q

How can the spread of gonorrhoea be treated? [2]

A
  1. Antibiotics
  2. Use barrier methods of contraception (condoms)
46
Q

How can the spread of disease be reduced/prevented? [4]

A
  1. Being hygienic
  2. Destroying vectors
  3. Isolating infected individuals
  4. Vaccination
47
Q

How does the skin defend against pathogens? [2]

A
  1. Acts as a barrier
  2. Secretes antimicrobial substances which kill pathogens
48
Q

How does the nose defend against pathogens?

A

It contains hairs and mucus which trap particles that could contain pathogens

49
Q

How do the trachea and bronchi defend against pathogens? [2]

A
  1. They secrete mucus to trap pathogens
  2. They are also lined with hair-like structures called cilia which waft the mucus to the back of the throat where it can be swallowed
50
Q

How does the stomach defend against pathogens?

A

Produces hydrochloric acid which kills pathogens

51
Q

What 3 things do white blood cells do to kill pathogens?

A
  1. Consume them
  2. Produce antibodies
  3. Produce antitoxins
52
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

When white blood cells engulf foreign cells and digest them

53
Q

Explain how white blood cells producing antibodies kills pathogens? [4]

A
  1. Every invading pathogen has antigens on its surface
  2. The white blood cells produce antibodies (special proteins) with a specific shape to bind to the antigens
  3. The pathogens can now be found and destroyed by other white blood cells
  4. Antibodies are then produced rapidly and carried around the body to find all similar pathogens
54
Q

What happens if a person is infected with the same pathogen again? [3]

A
  1. White blood cells remeber the pathogen
  2. Will rapidly produce antibodies to kill it
  3. The pathogens will be killed before symptoms occur
55
Q

What is another name for white blood cells that produce antibodies?

A

B-lymphocytes

56
Q

What do antitoxins do?

A

Neutralise toxins produced by invading bacteria

57
Q

How does vaccination work? [4]

A
  1. Small quantities of dead or inactive forms of a pathogen are injected into the body
  2. This stimulates white blood cells to produce antibodies
  3. If the same pathogen re-enters the white blood cells respond quickly to produce the correct antibodies
  4. The pathogens are killed before you get ill
58
Q

Pros of vaccination [2]

A
  1. Have helped to control lots of communicable dieases once common in the UK
  2. Prevents big outbreaks of diseases
59
Q

Cons of vaccinations [2]

A
  1. Don’t always work
  2. Can have a bad reaction
60
Q

How do antibiotics kills bacteria?

A

They kill the bacteria causing the problem without killing your own body cells

61
Q

Why can’t antibiotics be used to destroy viruses?

A

Viruses reproduce using your body cells, which makes it very difficult to develop drugs that destroy just the virus without killing the body’s cells

62
Q

How do the number of resistant bacteria increase? [4]

A
  1. A mutation will cause some bacteria to become resistant to an antibiotic
  2. When you treat the infection, only the non-resistant strains of bacteria will be killed
  3. The resistant bacteria will survive and reproduce
  4. The population of resistant bacteria will increase
63
Q

How can the rate of resistant strain development be slowed? [2]

A
  1. Avoid over-prescribing antibiotics
  2. Always finish the whole course of antibiotics
64
Q

Where does the painkiller aspirin originate from?

A

Willow

65
Q

Where does digitalis orginate from?

A

Foxgloves

66
Q

Who discovered penicillin?

A

Alexander Flemming

67
Q

Where does penicillin orginate from?

A

Penicillium mould

68
Q

Explain the stages of drug testing [6]

A
  1. Pre-clinical trial of the new drug on live animals to test toxicity, dosage and efficacy
  2. Test the drug on healthy volunteers at very low doses - to check for side effects
  3. Test on people suffering with the illness - to find optimum dose
  4. Blind trial on patients - patient does not know if they are getting real drug or placebo
  5. Double blind trial - neither the patient nor doctor knows what they are recieving
  6. Peer review of data to help prevent false claims
69
Q

What is efficacy?

A

How well a drug works

70
Q

What is toxicity?

A

How harmful a drug is

71
Q

What is dosage?

A

The conc. and frequency a drug should be given

72
Q

What is a placebo?

A

A substance that looks like a drug but doesn’t do anything

73
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies produced? [6]

A
  1. A mouse is injected with a chosen antigen
  2. B-lymphocytes taken from mouse
  3. Fast-dividing tumour cells grown in a lab
  4. B-lympocyte fused with tumour cell
  5. Makes a hybridoma
  6. It divides quickly to produce lots of clones that produce the monoclonal antibodies
74
Q

What hormone is found in a woman’s urine if she is pregnant?

A

HCG

75
Q

Describe the set up of a pregnancy test [2]

A
  1. The bit of the stick you wee on has some antibodies to the hormone HCG, with blue beads attached
  2. The test strip has some more antibodies to the hormone HCG stuck onto it (it can’t move)
76
Q

Desribe and explain what happens when a pregant woman takes a pregnancy test [4]

A
  1. The hormone HCG binds to the antibodies on the blue beads
  2. The urine moves up the stick, carrying the hormone and beads
  3. The beads and hormone bind to the antibodies on the strip
  4. So the beads get stuck on the strip, turning it blue
77
Q

Describe what happens when a woman who is not pregnant takes a pregnancy test [3]

A
  1. The urine moves up the stick carrying the blue beads
  2. There is nothing to stick the blue beads onto the test strip
  3. Strip doesn’t turn blue
78
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used treat diseases (such as cancer)? [5]

A
  1. Cancer cells have antigens on their cell membranes that aren’t found on normal body cells (tumour markers)
  2. In the lab, you can make monoclonal antibodies that will bind to these tumour markers
  3. An anti-cancer drug can be attached to these monoclonal antibodies
  4. The antibodies target the cancer cells because they only bind to the tumour markers
  5. The drug kills the cancer cells but does not kill any normal body cells
79
Q

What 2 other ways can monoclonal antibodies be used?

A
  1. Bind to hormones and other chemicals in blood to measure their levels
  2. Test blood samples in labs for certain pathogens
80
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used to locate specific molecules on a cell/tissue? [3]

A
  1. Monoclonal antibodies are made that will bind to the specific molecule you’re looking for
  2. Antibodies are then bound to a fluorescent dye
  3. If the molecules are present, the monoclonal antibodies will attach to them, and they can be detected by the dye
81
Q

Main advantage of monoclonal antibodies?

A

Cancer treatment which has fewer side effects compared to chemotherapy

82
Q

Main disadvantage of monoclonal antibodies?

A

Cause more side effects than originally expected (e.g. fever, vomiting, low blood preesure)

83
Q

What does a lack of nitrates cause in plants?

A

Stunted growth

84
Q

What does a lack of magnesium cause in plants?

A

Yellow leaves

85
Q

How can plant diseases be identified? [3]

A
  1. Looking up signs in gardening manual/website
  2. Taking infected plants to lab to identify pathogen
  3. Using testing kits that use monoclonal antibodies
86
Q

What are nitrate ions needed for in plants?

A

Protein synthesis and therefore growth

87
Q

What are magnesium ions needed for in plants?

A

To make chlorophyll and therefore photosynthesis

88
Q

What are the physical defences of plants? [3]

A
  1. Waxy cuticle on leaves
  2. Cell walls
  3. Layers of dead cells (e.g. bark)
89
Q

What are the chemical defences of plants? [2]

A
  1. Antibacterial chemicals
  2. Poisons to deter herbivores
90
Q

What are the mechanical defences of plants? [3]

A
  1. Thorns and hairs to deter animals
  2. Leaves which droop or curl when touched to knock insects off
  3. Mimicry to trick animals into not eating them

Biology (7 decks)

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