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Biology > Topic 2: Organisation > Flashcards

Topic 2: Organisation Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is a cell?

A

Basic building blocks of all living organisms

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2
Q

What is a tissue?

A

A group of similar cells working together to carry out a particular function

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3
Q

What is an organ?

A

A group of different tissues working together to carry out a particular function

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4
Q

What is an organ system?

A

A group of organs working together to carry out a particular function

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5
Q

What do enzymes act as?

A

Biological catalysts

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6
Q

What is a catalyst?

A

A substance which increases the speed of a reaction, without being changed or used up in the reaction

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7
Q

Explain how the ‘lock and key’ theory works? [3]

A
  1. Each enzyme has an active site with a shape that fits a substrate
  2. Enzymes are specific - one type of enzyme will only fit one type of substrate
  3. When the substrate binds to the active site, it breaks up to form the products
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8
Q

Was does the ‘induced fit’ model of enzyme action state?

A

That the active site changes shape a little to secure the substrate

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9
Q

Explain why temperature increases enzyme activity up to a certain point?

A

The enzymes and substrates move around faster meaning there are more collisions per second

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10
Q

Why is the name for the temperature when enzyme activity is at its highest?

A

Optimum temperature

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11
Q

What happens to the rate of enzyme activity after the optimum temperature? [3]

A
  1. The rate decreases
  2. This is because the enzymes denature
  3. The shape of the active site is changed so the substrate can no longer fit
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12
Q

What happens if the pH is too high or low for enzyme activity? [2]

A
  1. The enzyme denatures
  2. The shape of the active site is changed so the substrate can no longer fit
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13
Q

What is the equation for the rate of a reaction?

A

Rate = 1000/time

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14
Q

Why do starch, proteins and fats have to be broken down by digestive enzymes?

A

The molecules are too big to pass through the walls of the digestive system

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15
Q

Starch
i) Broken down by?
ii) Into what?

A

i) Amylase
ii) Maltose

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16
Q

Proteins
i) Broken down by?
ii) Into what?

A

i) Protease
ii) Amino acids

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17
Q

Lipids
i) Broken down by?
ii) Into what?

A

i) Lipase
ii) Glycerol and fatty acids

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18
Q

Where is amylase made?

A
  1. Salivary glands
  2. Pancreas
  3. Small intestine
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19
Q

Where is protease made?

A
  1. Stomach
  2. Pancreas
  3. Small intestine
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20
Q

Where is lipase made?

A
  1. Pancreas
  2. Small intestine
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21
Q

What is protease called in the stomach?

A

Pepsin

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22
Q

Where is bile produced?

A

Liver

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23
Q

Where is bile stored?

A

Gall bladder

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24
Q

Where is bile released?

A

Small intestine

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25
Q

Write and check

How does bile aid digestion? [4]

A
  1. Bile is alkaline, so it neutralises stomach acid and makes conditions in the small intestine alkaline
  2. The enzymes of the small intestine work best in these alkaline conditions
  3. Bile also breaks down fats into tiny droplets
  4. This gives a bigger surface area of fat for the enzyme lipase to work on, making digestion faster
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26
Q

What is the test for sugars?

A

Benedict’s

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27
Q

What colour change will occur if sugar is present?

A

Blue —> green, yellow, red
(depends how much sugar present)

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28
Q

What is the test for starch?

A

Iodine

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29
Q

What colour change will occur if starch is present?

A

Orange —> blue-black

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30
Q

What is the test for proteins?

A

Biuret

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31
Q

What colour change will occur if protein is present?

A

Blue —> purple

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32
Q

What is the test for lipids?

A

Ethanol

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33
Q

What colour change will occur if lipids are present?

A

Colourless —> cloudy white

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34
Q

Write and check

Describe the pathway of air when you breath in? [5]

A
  1. Air passes through our mouth or nose
  2. Then down our trachea
  3. It then divided between our two bronchi
  4. It then divided further into branch-like structures known as bronchioles
  5. It finally reaches small sacks known as alveloi, which carry out gas exchange
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35
Q

Describe the gas exchanges than occur across the alveoli [2]

A
  1. Oxygen diffuses out of the alveolus (high conc) into the blood (low conc)
  2. Carbon dioxide difusses out of the blood (high conc) into the alveolus (low conc)
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36
Q

Explain how oxygen diffuses into cells

A

When blood reaches body cells oxygen is released from red blood cells (high conc) and diffuses into the body cells (low conc)

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37
Q

Explain how carbon dioxide diffuses out of cells

A

Carbon dioxide diffuses out of body cells (high conc) into the blood (low conc)

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38
Q

How do you calculate breathing rate?

A

No. of breaths/no. of minutes

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39
Q

Write and check

Describe the pathway of deoxygenated blood through the heart [4]

A
  1. Blood flows into the vena cava
  2. Then into the right atrium
  3. The right atrium contracts pushing the blood into the right ventricle
  4. The ventricle contracts, forcing the blood out of the heart and to the lungs via the pulmonary artery
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40
Q

Describe the pathway of oxygenated blood through the heart [4]

A
  1. Blood flows into the pulmonary vein
  2. Then into the left atrium
  3. The left atrium contracts pushing the blood into the left ventricle
  4. The ventricle contracts, forcing the blood out of the heart and to the rest of the body via the aorta
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41
Q

Which side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs?

A

Right

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42
Q

Which side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body?

A

Left

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43
Q

What is the function of the coronary arteries?

A

They supply oxygenated blood to the heart itself

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44
Q

What is the natural resting heart rate controlled by?

A

A group of cells in the right atrium

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45
Q

How do the cells in the right atrium act as a pacemaker?

A

They produce small electrical impulses which spread to the surrounding muscle cells, causing then to contract

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46
Q

How does an artificial pacemaker work? [2]

A
  1. The little device is implanted under the skin and has a wire going to the heart
  2. It produces an electrical current to keep the heart beating regularly
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47
Q

What is the function of arteries?

A

To carry blood away from the heart

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48
Q

What is the function of veins?

A

To carry blood to the heart

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49
Q

What is the function of capillaries?

A

To exchange materials at tissues

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50
Q

How are arteries adapted to perform their function? [3]

A
  1. Walls are thick compared to the size of the lumen
  2. Walls contain thick layers of muscle - strong
  3. Walls contain elastic fibres - allow them to stretch and spring back
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51
Q

What is blood pressure like in arteries?

A

High

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52
Q

How are veins adapted to perform their function? [3]

A
  1. Thin walls
  2. Large lumen
  3. Valves
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53
Q

What is blood pressure like in veins?

A

Low

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54
Q

Why does the heart need valves?

A

To stop blood flowing in the wrong direction

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55
Q

What do capillaries branch off?

A

Arteries

56
Q

How are capillaries adapted to perform their function? [2]

A
  1. Permeable walls - allows substances to diffuse in and out
  2. One cells thick walls - decreases the distance of diffusion, increasing rate
57
Q

How would you calculate the rate of blood flow?

A

Volume of blood/no. of minutes

58
Q

What is the job of red blood cells?

A

To carry oxygen from the lungs to the body cells

59
Q

How are red blood cells adapted to perform their function? [2]

A
  1. Biconcave shape - large SA for absorbing oxygen
  2. No nucleus - allows more rrom to carry oxygen
60
Q

What is the red pigment in blood called?

A

Haemoglobin

61
Q

What happens to haemoglobin in the lungs?

A

It binds to oxygen to become oxyhaemoglobin

62
Q

What happens to oxyhaemoglobin in body tissues?

A

It splits into oxygen and haemoglobin to release oxygen into the cells

63
Q

What are 3 things a white blood cell can do?

A
  1. Engulf unwelcome microorganisms
  2. Produce antibodies to fight microorganisms
  3. Produce antitoxins to neutralise toxins produced by microorganisms
64
Q

What is the name of the process by which white blood cells engulf unwelcome microorganisms?

A

Phagocytosis

65
Q

Do white blood cells have a nucleus?

A

Yes

66
Q

What are platelets?

A

Small fragments of cells

67
Q

Do platelets have a nucleus?

A

No

68
Q

What is the function of platelets? [2]

A
  1. To help blood clot at a wound
  2. Stop blood pouring out and stop microorganisms getting in
69
Q

What can a lack of platelets cause? [2]

A
  1. Excessive bleeding
  2. Bruising
70
Q

What is the function of plasma?

A

To carry everything in blood

71
Q

What happens in coronary heart disease? [4]

A
  1. Layers of fatty material build-up inside the coronary arteries
  2. This causes the arteries to become narrow
  3. Reduces the flow of blood through the arteries
  4. Results in a lack of oxygen to the heart muscle
72
Q

What can coronary heart disease result in?

A

A heart attack

73
Q

How can stents be used to treat coronary heart disease? [4]

A
  1. Stents are tubes inserted inside arteries
  2. They push the artery wall out, squashing fatty deposit
  3. This keeps the artery open
  4. Ensures the supply of oxygenated blood to the heart is not interrupted
74
Q

Advantages of stents [3]

A
  1. Lowers the risk of a heart attack
  2. Effective for a long time
  3. Quick surgery and recovery time
75
Q

Disadvantages of stents [3]

A
  1. Risk of complications during operation (e.g. heart attack)
  2. Risk of infection from surgery
  3. Risk of blood clots developing
76
Q

What do statins do? [2]

A
  1. Reduces the amount of bad cholesterol in the blood
  2. Slows down the rate of fatty deposits forming
77
Q

Advantages of statins [3]

A
  1. Lowers the risk of coronary heart disease and heart attacks
  2. Can increase the amount of good cholesterol
  3. May prevent some other diseases
78
Q

Disadvantages of statins [3]

A
  1. Long-term drug, must be taken regularly - risk of someone forgetting to take them
  2. Side effects e.g. headaches, kidney failure
  3. Effect isn’t instant
79
Q

What does good cholesterol do in the blood?

A

Removes bad cholesterol

80
Q

In what 2 circumstances is an artifical heart usually used?

A
  1. Keep a person alive waiting for a donor heart
  2. To help a person recover by allowing the heart to rest and heal
81
Q

What is the main advantage of an artificial heart?

A

Less likely to be rejected than a donor heart

82
Q

Disadvantages of an artificial heart [3]

A
  1. Surgery can lead to bleeding and infection
  2. Don’t work as well as natural hearts - mechanics can fail
  3. Patients have to take blood thinners - can cause problems with bleeding if hurt
83
Q

What 3 things can cause faulty valves?

A
  1. Heart attacks
  2. Infection
  3. Old age
84
Q

What are the 2 types of replacement valves?

A
  1. Taken from human or other mammals
  2. Man-made
85
Q

What is the main advantage of replacing a valve?

A

Less drastic procedure than a whole heart transplant

86
Q

What is the main disadvantage of replacing a valve?

A

Still a major surgery which can lead to blood clots

87
Q

How can a faulty heart valve lead to poor blood circulation? [2]

A
  1. Valves may not be able to open properly, meaning less blood can flow through them
  2. They can become leaky, meaning blood is able to flow in both directions
88
Q

Define ‘health’

A

State of mental and physical well-being

89
Q

What is a communicable disease?

A

Those that can spread from a person to person or between animals and people

90
Q

What is a non-communicable disease?

A

Those that cannot spread between people or between people and animals

91
Q

What is the main cause of ill health?

A

Diseases

92
Q

What other factors affect health? [3]

A
  1. Diet
  2. Stress
  3. Life situation
93
Q

What knock-on effect can defects in the immune system cause?

A

An individual is more likely to suffer from infectious diseases

94
Q

What knock-on effect can ill physical health cause?

A

Poor mental health

95
Q

What knock-on effect can viruses living in cells cause?

A

Cancer

96
Q

What knock-on effect can an immune response to a pathogen cause?

A

Trigger allergies (e.g. skin rash or asthma)

97
Q

What is a risk factor?

A

Things that are linked to an increase in the likelihood that a person will develop a certain disease

98
Q

What can smoking cause? [3]

A
  1. Cardiovascular disease
  2. Lung disease
  3. Lung cancer
98
Q

What are the 2 categories for risk factor?

A
  1. Aspects of a peron’s lifestyle
  2. Substances in the person’s body or environment
99
Q

How does smoking cause cardiovascular disease?

A

It damages the walls of the arteries

100
Q

How does smoking cause lung cancer/disease?

A

Damages the cells in the lining of the lungs

101
Q

What can obesity cause?

A

Type 2 diabetes

102
Q

What can drinking too much alcohol cause? [2]

A
  1. Liver disease
  2. Brain damage
103
Q

What will the affect of smoking/drinking while pregnant have?

A

Cause health problems for the baby

104
Q

What can cause cancer?

A

Exposure to radiation

105
Q

What is the human cost of non-communicable diseases? [2]

A
  1. People with disease may have a lower quality of life
  2. Can cause stress to loved ones
106
Q

What is the financial cost of non-communicable diseases? [2]

A
  1. Cost to the NHS treating diseases
  2. More time off work leading to Government having to give financial support
107
Q

What is cancer?

A

Uncontrolled cell growth and division

108
Q

Characteristics of benign tumours [3]

A
  1. Tumour stays in one place - doesn’t invade other tissues
  2. Isn’t normally dangerous
  3. Tumour isn’t cancerous
109
Q

Characteristics of malignant tumours [3]

A
  1. Tumour grows and spreads to neighbouring healthy tissues - forming secondary tumours
  2. Dangerous
  3. Tumour is cancerous
110
Q

What are 3 lifestyle risk factors of cancer?

A
  1. Smoking
  2. Obesity
  3. UV exposure
111
Q

What is an example of genetics increasing the likelihood of cancer?

A

Mutations in the BRCA genes have been linked to an increased likelihood of developing breast and ovarian cancer

112
Q

Why is the epidermal tissue covered with a waxy cuticle?

A

Reduces water loss by evaporation

113
Q

Why is the upper epidermis transparent?

A

Allows light to pass through to the palisade layer

114
Q

Why is the palisade layer near the top of the leaf?

A

So they can receive the most light to carry out photosynthesis

115
Q

Why are there air spaces in the spongy mesophyll?

A

Increase the rate of diffusion of gases

116
Q

Why does the lower epidermis have little holes called stomata?

A

To let CO₂ diffuse directly into the leaf

117
Q

What does the phloem transport?

A

Food

118
Q

What does the xylem transport?

A

Water and mineral ions

119
Q

What is translocation?

A

The process by which the phloem transports food substances made in the leaves to the rest of the leaf for immediate use or storage

120
Q

What is transpiration?

A

The movement of water from the roots, through the xylem and out of the leaves

121
Q

What is the xylem strengthened with?

A

Lignin

122
Q

How does light intensity affect transpiration rate?

A

The brighter the light, the greater the transpiration rate

123
Q

Why does the rate of transpiration decrease in the dark? [3]

A
  1. Stomata close as it gets dark
  2. Photosynthesis can’t happen in the dark so they don’t need to open to let in CO₂
  3. When the stomata are closed, very little water can escape
124
Q

How does temperature affect transpiration rate?

A

The warmer it is, the faster the transpiration rate

125
Q

Why does transpiration happen faster in warmer temperatures? [2]

A
  1. The water particles have more energy
  2. So they evaporate and diffuse out of the stomata more quickly
126
Q

How does air flow affect transpiration rate?

A

The better the air flow, the greater the transpiration rate

127
Q

Why does transpiration happen faster in good air flow? [3]

A
  1. Water vapour is swept away quickly
  2. This maintains a low concentration of water in the air outside the leaf
  3. Diffusion then happens quickly, from an area of high conc. to an area of low conc.
128
Q

How does humidity affect transpiration rate?

A

The drier the air, the faster the transpiration rate

129
Q

Why does transpiration happen faster in dry conditions? [2]

A
  1. There is minimal water in the air
  2. So diffusion happens quickly, from an area of high conc. to an area of low conc.
130
Q

What opens and closes the stomata?

A

Guard cells

131
Q

Guard cells

What happens when a plant has lots of water? [3]

A
  1. Guard cells fill with water and go plump and turgid
  2. Opens the stomata
  3. Gases can be exchanged for photosynthesis
132
Q

Guard cells

What happens when a plant is short of water? [3]

A
  1. Guard cells lose water and become flaccid
  2. Closes the stomata
  3. Helps stop too much water vapour escaping
133
Q

How are guard cells adapted to open and close? [2]

A
  1. Thin outer walls
  2. Thickened inner walls
134
Q

Why are more stomata found on the lower side of a leaf?

A

Less water is lost through the stomata because it is shaded and cooler

Biology (7 decks)

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